1 00:00:10,530 --> 00:00:18,960 OK, well, thank you for showing up on my day, volume one, part one, chapter one, 2 00:00:18,960 --> 00:00:26,070 why chapters why indeed they are not a fashionable subject of literary criticism. 3 00:00:26,070 --> 00:00:32,220 They may not have actually seemed that appealing to you when you saw that that was one of the lectures on this list. 4 00:00:32,220 --> 00:00:37,230 And yet there they are, deep in the structure of most prose works, 5 00:00:37,230 --> 00:00:44,550 doing much of the supporting and some of the embellishing, which is why I think they deserve some attention. 6 00:00:44,550 --> 00:00:52,110 In fact, an awful lot more attention than they've had European languages agree in their metaphors. 7 00:00:52,110 --> 00:00:56,340 Chapter shaped capital or capital. 8 00:00:56,340 --> 00:01:09,210 And the Greek cephalic from Latin Kaputt had the Russia the Russian Glover from Gulliver also had. 9 00:01:09,210 --> 00:01:15,270 So chapters don't, in fact refer to Gerda's or supporting walls or partitions, 10 00:01:15,270 --> 00:01:22,800 but point to the heading of the chapter and our extended met anemically to the whole. 11 00:01:22,800 --> 00:01:32,800 But perhaps in addition, each chapter has a had a mind of its own and develops its own set of thoughts. 12 00:01:32,800 --> 00:01:38,440 Charters have a long history, but not quite as long as written literature, 13 00:01:38,440 --> 00:01:44,560 The Iliad and The Odyssey are supposed to have been divided into their 24 books apiece. 14 00:01:44,560 --> 00:01:53,380 About 200 years before Christ, the subdivision of the books of the Bible was more complicated. 15 00:01:53,380 --> 00:01:58,660 The Hebrew scriptures were first divided into paragraphs four reading aloud, 16 00:01:58,660 --> 00:02:05,830 and the New Testament was divided in this way in three hundred and twenty five A.D. in 2014, 17 00:02:05,830 --> 00:02:13,390 the same English archbishop who wrote the Magna Carta divided Jerome's Latin Bible 18 00:02:13,390 --> 00:02:20,380 into chapters which were then carried over into the Hebrew and the Greek Bibles. 19 00:02:20,380 --> 00:02:32,090 And in fifteen 90, another English Bible finalised the chapters and the verses in a way which was adopted by the Greek Orthodox Bible to. 20 00:02:32,090 --> 00:02:42,560 When the heads of Catholic cathedrals met to read out to each other a few of these chapters, they did so in a separate building or as it were, 21 00:02:42,560 --> 00:02:48,710 chapter of the cathedral, which became known as the Chapter House 70s, 22 00:02:48,710 --> 00:02:55,640 use them in his sixty five novel, Don Quixote, and most novels have used them ever since. 23 00:02:55,640 --> 00:03:10,250 But why? Chapter two, resting places. 24 00:03:10,250 --> 00:03:13,620 They can be points to stop and take stock of what is being read, 25 00:03:13,620 --> 00:03:21,200 and if one is inclined to reflect on whatever else it might be, the chapters are there for Henry Fielding. 26 00:03:21,200 --> 00:03:29,510 At the opening of the second book of his novel, Joseph Andrews spends an entire chapter doing just that. 27 00:03:29,510 --> 00:03:36,290 The narrator comments. It becomes an author generally to divide a book as it does a butcher. 28 00:03:36,290 --> 00:03:43,610 To joint his meat for such assistance is a great help to both the reader and the carver. 29 00:03:43,610 --> 00:03:49,100 One of the more trivial forms of this assistance is that the chapter, quote, 30 00:03:49,100 --> 00:03:56,060 prevents spoiling the beauty of a book by turning down its leaves a method otherwise necessary to those readers who, 31 00:03:56,060 --> 00:03:59,000 though they read with great improvement and advantage, 32 00:03:59,000 --> 00:04:05,480 are apt when they return to their study after half an hour's absence to forget where they left off. 33 00:04:05,480 --> 00:04:15,410 And then, with typically memorable whimsy, he develops a metaphor quotation to. 34 00:04:15,410 --> 00:04:21,710 Those little spaces between our chapters may be looked upon as an inn or a resting place 35 00:04:21,710 --> 00:04:30,090 where the reader may stop and take a glass or any other refreshment as it pleases him, 36 00:04:30,090 --> 00:04:33,020 they are fine readers will perhaps be scarce, 37 00:04:33,020 --> 00:04:41,480 able to travel further than through one of them in a day that in the end, the reader may consider of what he has seen in the past, 38 00:04:41,480 --> 00:04:50,270 has already passed through a consideration which I take the liberty to recommend a little to the reader for however swift his capacity may be. 39 00:04:50,270 --> 00:04:55,580 I would not advise him to travel through these pages too fast, for if he does, 40 00:04:55,580 --> 00:05:04,550 he may probably miss the seeing some curious productions of nature, which will be observed by the slower and more accurate reader. 41 00:05:04,550 --> 00:05:10,250 But at this point, I would like to take a survey of the extent to which you actually read in chapters. 42 00:05:10,250 --> 00:05:20,240 Could you put up your hands if when you read a novel you tend to end a reading session at the end of a chapter rather than partway through one? 43 00:05:20,240 --> 00:05:27,740 OK, and who is conscious that they often finish reading, finished reading at points other than chapter breaks? 44 00:05:27,740 --> 00:05:31,880 OK, yeah, that's a minority for myself, 45 00:05:31,880 --> 00:05:41,180 I freely confess that I often stop reading after an hour's reading or four or when the phone rings or when the impulse to check my emails 46 00:05:41,180 --> 00:05:49,460 suddenly quells my desire to find out what happens next to Emma Bovary or when I need the toilet or I need to eat or I want to fall asleep. 47 00:05:49,460 --> 00:05:58,490 This is the equivalent of falling asleep under the stars, perhaps on a haystack rather than pressing through to the next in. 48 00:05:58,490 --> 00:06:03,710 And yet even I benefit from the existence of chapters. 49 00:06:03,710 --> 00:06:07,940 For one thing, a vast expanse, less sorry, a vast, 50 00:06:07,940 --> 00:06:17,930 featureless expanse of text can be as intimidating to the mind as a voyage across uncharted water to the sea. 51 00:06:17,930 --> 00:06:28,130 Fieldings says that a volume without any such places of rest resembles the openings of whales or seas, which tires the eye and fatigues. 52 00:06:28,130 --> 00:06:31,820 The spirit, when embarked upon his comments, 53 00:06:31,820 --> 00:06:36,380 apply to centuries before the event to those modernist novels which were written 54 00:06:36,380 --> 00:06:42,650 without chapter breaks any more visible than a small white gap in Virginia Woolf. 55 00:06:42,650 --> 00:06:48,020 The waves we are truly are out on the open sea. 56 00:06:48,020 --> 00:06:56,870 But seeing Ehnes on my journey reassures me that I am making progress, that I'm no longer in that place, but this one, 57 00:06:56,870 --> 00:07:05,990 if the chapters are numbered, then it is as though the INS have in front of them stones indicating the number of miles that I have travelled. 58 00:07:05,990 --> 00:07:13,490 And if I have consulted the contents pages map, then I know how many I still have to have to go through till the end. 59 00:07:13,490 --> 00:07:21,680 This lecture, by the way, has five. The INS also give me a reassuring sense that I am still in civilisation, that I am not, 60 00:07:21,680 --> 00:07:31,280 in fact tilting at windmills in early 17th century Spain or watching the shambles at Borodino on September the 7th, 61 00:07:31,280 --> 00:07:39,650 1812, or being seduced by Arabella done or sinking into a feeling in the air of a Ford. 62 00:07:39,650 --> 00:07:49,820 Six hundred and thirty two. Now I am reading a novel and at the INS, the controlling presence of the author is reassuring the manifest. 63 00:07:49,820 --> 00:07:57,140 They remind me that what I am experiencing is not life but art, and that, however desperately problematic, 64 00:07:57,140 --> 00:08:06,560 the real world in which I am now reminded that I am reading it is a world which produces not only the industrial slaughter of men, 65 00:08:06,560 --> 00:08:11,990 but art such as war and peace and brave new world. 66 00:08:11,990 --> 00:08:21,830 Art, in all its modes, demands in its creators and receivers, a heightened perception of form of gestalt, 67 00:08:21,830 --> 00:08:29,270 given which one of the limitations of the novel as a whole is the difficulty of perceiving the shape of so large and complex, 68 00:08:29,270 --> 00:08:41,360 an object Henry James famously referred to by not mere war and peace, amongst other novels, as great loose baggy monsters or fluid pudding's. 69 00:08:41,360 --> 00:08:50,630 The English critic Percy Lubbock memorably described the process of reading the first page sorry of reading on the first page of his 1921 study, 70 00:08:50,630 --> 00:08:59,300 The Craft of Fiction. And this is a quotation one as quickly as we read, it melts and shifts in the memory. 71 00:08:59,300 --> 00:09:08,780 Even at the moment when the last page is turned a great part of the book, its finer detail is already vague and doubtful. 72 00:09:08,780 --> 00:09:14,480 A little later, after a few days or months, how much is really left of it? 73 00:09:14,480 --> 00:09:22,040 A cluster of impressions, some clear points arising from a mist of uncertainty. 74 00:09:22,040 --> 00:09:32,480 This is all we can hope to possess. Generally speaking, in the name of a book, nobody would venture to criticise a building, a statue, 75 00:09:32,480 --> 00:09:39,200 a picture with nothing before them but the memory of a single glimpse caught in passing. 76 00:09:39,200 --> 00:09:46,590 Yet the critic of literature on the whole has to found his opinion upon little more. 77 00:09:46,590 --> 00:09:50,400 In this, of course, the novel differs from the short story, 78 00:09:50,400 --> 00:09:59,370 and this is where the chapter can come in and offer within the novel something of the shape and a ability of the short story. 79 00:09:59,370 --> 00:10:07,890 Yet in practise, before you run away with this metaphor, most chapters do not have a short story shape because they exist in closer 80 00:10:07,890 --> 00:10:14,430 independence and more necessary sequence than do the stories of a collection. 81 00:10:14,430 --> 00:10:23,460 So perhaps in that respect they more resemble the scenes of a play with the larger books into which some long novels are divided, 82 00:10:23,460 --> 00:10:30,120 then resembling acts novels of very few chapters like Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, 83 00:10:30,120 --> 00:10:38,610 which has three may be thought to resemble symphonies or concerti of three or four movements. 84 00:10:38,610 --> 00:10:48,780 But in most novels, chapters are so numerous and closely linked that they perhaps most of all resemble the paragraphs of which the prose is composed, 85 00:10:48,780 --> 00:10:54,600 which may have very different lengths and shapes, but necessarily followed from one to the next. 86 00:10:54,600 --> 00:11:05,750 Indeed, some of the chapters of Wolfe's to the Lighthouse are actually one paragraph long, and a chapter can hardly be shorter than that. 87 00:11:05,750 --> 00:11:15,180 Chapter three, naming of parts. You can do several things in an in other than spend the night there. 88 00:11:15,180 --> 00:11:20,340 You can get information from the landlord about the road that lies ahead, possible pleasures, 89 00:11:20,340 --> 00:11:26,700 diversions, dangers, and his estimation of the likely weather conditions over the next few hours. 90 00:11:26,700 --> 00:11:33,690 I'm referring here to chapter titles which give, in some cases, considerable detail of what is to come. 91 00:11:33,690 --> 00:11:42,250 Samuel Richardson's Clarissa is composed entirely of letters which serve as the novels, de facto chapters, letters. 92 00:11:42,250 --> 00:11:52,620 Sixty two is entitled Clarissa to Miss How Her Uncle's Angry Answer Substance of a humble letter from Mr. Lovelace. 93 00:11:52,620 --> 00:11:59,640 He has got a violent, cold and hoarseness by his fruitless attendance all night in the copies. 94 00:11:59,640 --> 00:12:05,520 She is sorry he is not well, makes a conditional appointment with him for the next night in the garden. 95 00:12:05,520 --> 00:12:16,170 Hates tyranny in all shapes. In fact, such detailed titles sometimes failed to mention the chapters most decisive events, 96 00:12:16,170 --> 00:12:21,510 whereas some short titles give away a considerable amount. 97 00:12:21,510 --> 00:12:28,440 In Chapter fifty two of Oliver Twist, Fagin is in prison under sentence of death. 98 00:12:28,440 --> 00:12:37,410 Now, the nature of death sentences on major characters in novels is that they are quite often reversed at the 11th hour. 99 00:12:37,410 --> 00:12:43,270 The chapter is entitled Fagin's Last Night Alive. 100 00:12:43,270 --> 00:12:46,870 No chance of a reprieve there even. 101 00:12:46,870 --> 00:12:58,210 Another example is in Tess of the d'Urbervilles, which is written in named phases at the end of phase, the first, the maiden test loses her virginity. 102 00:12:58,210 --> 00:13:02,890 It is night. The action is in a dense forest. 103 00:13:02,890 --> 00:13:07,750 This is a Victorian novel and the passage is obscurely written. 104 00:13:07,750 --> 00:13:13,390 But the second phase opens by making this much at least clear. 105 00:13:13,390 --> 00:13:25,250 That is the second major no more. Over the 19th century, however, titles in English novels tended to become less revealing as well as shorter. 106 00:13:25,250 --> 00:13:34,970 Some are straightforwardly indicative. For example, in Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Voxel and Marine simply indicate new locations. 107 00:13:34,970 --> 00:13:42,560 Others have a poetic function and operate in an oblique or ironic way in relation to the contents of the chapter. 108 00:13:42,560 --> 00:13:50,330 Other chapters in the same novel are entitled Arcadian Simplicity and Quite A Sentimental Character. 109 00:13:50,330 --> 00:13:55,280 Such titles function in a similar way to the titles of works of visual art. 110 00:13:55,280 --> 00:14:01,910 Although given the density of verbal detail in a chapter in relation to its title and the fact 111 00:14:01,910 --> 00:14:07,850 that they like the narrative exist in the dimension of reading time chapter titles are not, 112 00:14:07,850 --> 00:14:15,680 I would suggest, as determinative of the objects, meaning as is the case with works of visual art. 113 00:14:15,680 --> 00:14:26,030 Of course, titles take great opportunity to be teasing Fieldings narrator claims that and in these inscriptions, I've been as faithful as possible, 114 00:14:26,030 --> 00:14:31,670 not imitating the celebrated montane who gives you one who promises you one thing and gives you another, 115 00:14:31,670 --> 00:14:37,550 nor some title page authors who promise a great deal and produce nothing at all. 116 00:14:37,550 --> 00:14:48,740 Yet in his novel, Tom Jones, Part one, Chapter 12 is entitled Quotation three, containing what the reader may perhaps expect to find in it. 117 00:14:48,740 --> 00:14:56,960 Part two, Chapter four is containing one of the most bloody battles or rather duels that were ever recorded in domestic history. 118 00:14:56,960 --> 00:15:03,730 The duel is a highly undignified fight between women in a churchyard after church. 119 00:15:03,730 --> 00:15:11,410 The contents pages of novels which have chapter names and which put those names on the contents page, 120 00:15:11,410 --> 00:15:17,040 which is not all of them, have several uses for people who have already read the novel. 121 00:15:17,040 --> 00:15:22,780 They serve the extremely helpful function of helping them to locate, relocate passages. 122 00:15:22,780 --> 00:15:29,600 No need when reading the thousand pages of Little Dorrit to insert a bookmark at a favourite spot 123 00:15:29,600 --> 00:15:35,050 such as Fanny Dorrit's last conversation with Mr. Myrdal before he commits suicide in a bath house. 124 00:15:35,050 --> 00:15:40,120 You can just refer to the contents page and go straight there. In this respect, 125 00:15:40,120 --> 00:15:48,110 films are retrospectively novelised when they are transferred to DVD and broken by somebody 126 00:15:48,110 --> 00:15:54,580 in two chapters with titles and representative frames presented on a continuous screen, 127 00:15:54,580 --> 00:16:03,190 giving instant access to the beginning of the chapter chosen and in certain editions of certain novels such as those of Dickens, 128 00:16:03,190 --> 00:16:10,660 you can even find precise moments with the help of descriptive headers at the top of every page. 129 00:16:10,660 --> 00:16:19,610 If you bother to look at contents pages, you can often, as a first time reader, learn quite a lot about the novel as the whole. 130 00:16:19,610 --> 00:16:32,600 When industry eskies notes from underground, you are faced with one underground, two concerning wet snow and that's it, 131 00:16:32,600 --> 00:16:41,910 you know that you're in the hands of a rather strange author or a rather strange narrator or as is the case here, both. 132 00:16:41,910 --> 00:16:48,900 Read the contents page of Bulgar, Master and Margarita and certain things will be immediately apparent. 133 00:16:48,900 --> 00:16:58,980 The second chapter being called Pontius Pilate and chapter titles referring variously to Satan Absolution and Eternal Refuge, 134 00:16:58,980 --> 00:17:05,400 will be enough to tell you that this is really not the kind of novel of which Mihail Alexandrovich Berlioz, 135 00:17:05,400 --> 00:17:16,060 chairman of Massachusett, who opens the novel by rebuking Bears Domna for taking Jesus sufficiently seriously to criticise him, would approve. 136 00:17:16,060 --> 00:17:23,320 The contents page of Johnson's coat, what a carve up prepares its reader for its oscillations between action occurring in 137 00:17:23,320 --> 00:17:29,380 nineteen ninety to ninety one and chapters concerning six different individuals. 138 00:17:29,380 --> 00:17:38,500 Once we've read the first few chapters, we can make still more sense of the contents page and begin to anticipate the horrors which are to come, 139 00:17:38,500 --> 00:17:48,790 though quite what an Organisation of Deaths, which is the title of Part two will involve, we can only fear or fantasise about. 140 00:17:48,790 --> 00:17:54,820 In a history of the world, in 10 and a half chapters, the contents page is still more important. 141 00:17:54,820 --> 00:18:02,170 This is acknowledged by the fact that it is sent to justified and that its numbers are written out as words. 142 00:18:02,170 --> 00:18:08,950 It is here that the innocent browser in a bookshop is is assured that the book has not been mis shelved 143 00:18:08,950 --> 00:18:15,610 as fiction and is reassured that even if this is not a history in any common sense of the term, 144 00:18:15,610 --> 00:18:22,870 it does at least have 10 chapters and something called the parentheses, which will have to serve as the half. 145 00:18:22,870 --> 00:18:31,270 Contents pages can also, when read retrospectively as their position at the end of books in certain countries, including Russia, 146 00:18:31,270 --> 00:18:40,690 seems to invite a quiet something of the quality of verse or even poetry bearing a similar summative relationship to 147 00:18:40,690 --> 00:18:49,840 the section of the novel concerned as the chapter titles due to their corresponding chapters in E.M. Forster's novel, 148 00:18:49,840 --> 00:18:51,400 A Room With a View, 149 00:18:51,400 --> 00:19:03,330 the four chapters before the last are all Ussery are called with all with reference to the heroine Lucy Honeychurch lying to George. 150 00:19:03,330 --> 00:19:10,760 Lying to Cecile. Lying to Mr. B, Mrs. Honeychurch, Freddie in the servants. 151 00:19:10,760 --> 00:19:13,830 Lying to Mr Emmerson. 152 00:19:13,830 --> 00:19:24,240 Only Mr. Emmerson is someone you can't get away with lying to, he forces Lucy to be honest to herself and to marry the right person. 153 00:19:24,240 --> 00:19:33,990 And so the next chapter is the last. On the contents page, it is clear that the author is indulgently ticking Lucy off. 154 00:19:33,990 --> 00:19:39,810 That's not the way it says, nor is that. Nor is that. Nor is that. 155 00:19:39,810 --> 00:19:46,650 First is contemporary D.H. Lawrence, who I find singularly inept and misleading in many of his book titles, 156 00:19:46,650 --> 00:19:52,500 tends to use extremely laconic chapter titles in his novel, Women in Love. 157 00:19:52,500 --> 00:20:03,840 We have a driver in the train, a chair, all of them perfectly helpful to second time readers, but giving very little away to the first time reader. 158 00:20:03,840 --> 00:20:12,780 But the novel's last three chapter titles read in order on the contents page, do resonate to someone who knows the novel. 159 00:20:12,780 --> 00:20:20,760 Chapter 30 is called Snow. Thirty one snowed up thirty to exeunt. 160 00:20:20,760 --> 00:20:26,590 So we have snow snowed up exeunt. 161 00:20:26,590 --> 00:20:36,850 The effect is cumulative, Snow is concerned with the developing relationships of two couples on holiday in the Austrian to roll in, snow up, 162 00:20:36,850 --> 00:20:41,290 the less happy couple becomes more and more unhappy with the combination of one 163 00:20:41,290 --> 00:20:47,010 partner trying to kill the other and then committing passive suicide in the snow. 164 00:20:47,010 --> 00:20:55,950 In exeunt, his body is recovered, the other characters converge around him and all are dismissed as the novel ends, 165 00:20:55,950 --> 00:21:04,320 the insidious repetition of snow in Snowdrop evokes the claustrophobia of the high Alps from which the characters suffer. 166 00:21:04,320 --> 00:21:13,260 The word exeunt breaks into freedom from the mountains and from a destructive relationship, but only at the cost of death. 167 00:21:13,260 --> 00:21:18,780 The motion of the novel can be read at its clearest on the contents page. 168 00:21:18,780 --> 00:21:23,880 But of course, many chapters have no names at all, only numbers. 169 00:21:23,880 --> 00:21:27,900 Before the 20th century, this was relatively rare. 170 00:21:27,900 --> 00:21:35,640 Sterne's Tristram Shandy, the novels of Austin and Bronte's Wuthering Heights are rare examples of this chapters, 171 00:21:35,640 --> 00:21:41,070 which are only numbered, not named some novels which are divided at two levels. 172 00:21:41,070 --> 00:21:45,750 For example, books and chapters. Name one, but not the other. 173 00:21:45,750 --> 00:21:53,850 George Eliot experimented with this over the course of her career. Her first novel, Adam Bede, names its chapters, not its books. 174 00:21:53,850 --> 00:22:02,370 The mill on the Floss names both but her later novels, Felix Holt, Middlemarch and Daniel Deronda all named their parts, but not their chapters. 175 00:22:02,370 --> 00:22:06,990 At one level, of course, the choice could just be dictated by the amount of labour involved. 176 00:22:06,990 --> 00:22:14,370 It's a lot easier to think of nine to five parts than the 70 chapters, but the choice has an effect on meaning. 177 00:22:14,370 --> 00:22:19,950 Numbers follow one another in inevitable order. Names don't numbered. 178 00:22:19,950 --> 00:22:23,820 Parts like in Adam Bede are like the acts of a play. 179 00:22:23,820 --> 00:22:30,690 One expect certain kinds of thing to happen in the first act and certain other things to happen in the fifth. 180 00:22:30,690 --> 00:22:37,350 Whereas what makes up these acts is a sequence of types of actions that might be found in named chapter titles. 181 00:22:37,350 --> 00:22:42,420 The Middlemarch model is the reverse. The large phases are characterised. 182 00:22:42,420 --> 00:22:46,140 One Miss broke too old and young, 183 00:22:46,140 --> 00:22:51,840 whereas the precise action is broken down only into numbers as though perhaps the details were 184 00:22:51,840 --> 00:22:58,980 subordinate to and the characters even ignorant of the larger scheme of which they form part. 185 00:22:58,980 --> 00:23:04,590 This seems to be true of Thomas Hardy, who also uses this form. 186 00:23:04,590 --> 00:23:11,100 It's also worth noticing whether the numbering of the chapters starts again at the beginning of each book or part, 187 00:23:11,100 --> 00:23:21,120 or whether it is cumulative, as in Daniel Deronda. In the former case, the parts again relative independence as artistic holds. 188 00:23:21,120 --> 00:23:30,240 Of course, in the nineteenth century in particular, many novels were published in instalments and then in one or more volumes. 189 00:23:30,240 --> 00:23:36,750 But the two kinds of division, instalment and chapter tended in general to co-operate happily. 190 00:23:36,750 --> 00:23:42,420 That is, although there was no necessity for instalment boundaries to coincide with chapter boundaries. 191 00:23:42,420 --> 00:23:48,300 And in any case, chapter boundaries were often shifted before a novel was first published in book form. 192 00:23:48,300 --> 00:23:53,310 In practise, these boundaries nearly always coincide, 193 00:23:53,310 --> 00:24:00,600 but instalment lengths tend to be fairly constant for obvious reasons, and chapter lengths are very variable. 194 00:24:00,600 --> 00:24:09,240 But they are nearly always shorter than instalments. So, for example, in the case of Dickens, many of his instalments have two chapters. 195 00:24:09,240 --> 00:24:14,520 Some have as many as six, and a few contain only one. 196 00:24:14,520 --> 00:24:21,930 There is, though, a connexion between the length of a published volume and the average length of its chapters. 197 00:24:21,930 --> 00:24:27,780 So, for example, if a 600 page novel appears in book form in six volumes, 198 00:24:27,780 --> 00:24:33,810 then the average length of its chapters will be shorter than if it is published in four volumes or two or one. 199 00:24:33,810 --> 00:24:36,600 Think of the research that I did find that out. 200 00:24:36,600 --> 00:24:46,260 There are very few novels which have no positive markers between their chapters at all, merely a new page or just a few missed lines. 201 00:24:46,260 --> 00:24:50,910 Daniel Defoe's 1722 Moll Flanders has nothing at all, 202 00:24:50,910 --> 00:24:59,450 though her life can be fairly easily read in episodes defined by the man with whom she happens to be. 203 00:24:59,450 --> 00:25:05,030 That was one of the very first British novels as novel is usually defined. 204 00:25:05,030 --> 00:25:11,570 And after that, few novels were written without clear chapters until the 20th century. 205 00:25:11,570 --> 00:25:16,490 Joyce's Ulysses has a short space between episodes. 206 00:25:16,490 --> 00:25:22,460 His Finnegans Wake starts again seven times on a new page. 207 00:25:22,460 --> 00:25:28,790 A new page also separates the vocalising consciousnesses of Wolfe's The Waves. 208 00:25:28,790 --> 00:25:33,380 Mrs. Dalloway is from Septimus Smith's The Intellectual Formulations of Stephen, 209 00:25:33,380 --> 00:25:38,540 details from Bloom's cooking of kidneys and the four phases of Becket's. 210 00:25:38,540 --> 00:25:49,400 What? But if this shunning of the advantages of chapters is typical of modernism, then postmodernism has brought them back again, 211 00:25:49,400 --> 00:25:56,540 as has happened in the 18th century in order to play with them in Beryl Bainbridge is Master Georgie, 212 00:25:56,540 --> 00:26:04,490 in which two of the central characters are photographers. The chapters are called not that, but plates, as in photographic plates, 213 00:26:04,490 --> 00:26:11,180 each one dated and titled and playing on the Congresses between its visual and verbal art. 214 00:26:11,180 --> 00:26:17,230 For example, plate one eighteen forty six girl in the presence of death. 215 00:26:17,230 --> 00:26:23,110 Books which describe the writing of books may contain some of the apparatus of the latter. 216 00:26:23,110 --> 00:26:30,430 For example, what a carve up by ends with the title page and preface to the biography of the Winshaw family, 217 00:26:30,430 --> 00:26:35,510 which the central character has supposedly spent the whole of that novel writing. 218 00:26:35,510 --> 00:26:44,300 Atonement, which I mentioned last week, doesn't quite do this as the novel itself is the one of which it describes the process of production, 219 00:26:44,300 --> 00:26:53,390 but its parts are differently structured in ways which a significant part, one which describes the events of Summer nineteen thirty five is described, 220 00:26:53,390 --> 00:27:02,870 is divided into numbered sections, whereas parts two and three, which deal with the retreat from France and Bryony's hospital work respectively, 221 00:27:02,870 --> 00:27:09,590 give merely the first letter of certain paragraphs as an enlarged, bold capital. 222 00:27:09,590 --> 00:27:19,670 It's as though the first part of it was written as its first draught certainly were by the highly literary and perniciously inventive teenaged Briony, 223 00:27:19,670 --> 00:27:28,280 who does not yet understand the actions being described. She divides this narrative into chapters because that's what creative writers do. 224 00:27:28,280 --> 00:27:33,950 The later sections, which deal with the gradual growth of her understanding and the events which 225 00:27:33,950 --> 00:27:39,650 cause it and are its objects dispense with the artifice of numbered sections. 226 00:27:39,650 --> 00:27:44,690 From now on, the implication is the narrative is engaging with reality. 227 00:27:44,690 --> 00:27:49,100 The last section, London nineteen ninety nine is all in one section. 228 00:27:49,100 --> 00:27:53,960 It is, after all, pure autobiography and not within the novel's conceit. 229 00:27:53,960 --> 00:27:57,290 Fiction in any sense at all. 230 00:27:57,290 --> 00:28:07,670 At least the young Briony doesn't use epigraphs to embellish the chapter headings of Part one, although one might have expected her to do just that. 231 00:28:07,670 --> 00:28:12,860 But the novel as a whole has won a quotation from Austen's Northanger Abbey about its 232 00:28:12,860 --> 00:28:18,560 young heroine making lurid accusations after seeing things she doesn't understand. 233 00:28:18,560 --> 00:28:22,370 So McEwan then is confessing that the whole work is literature. 234 00:28:22,370 --> 00:28:28,820 The layout doesn't ask us to believe that the older Bryony's puts this epigraph at the beginning of her atonement, 235 00:28:28,820 --> 00:28:37,130 and so he is bedding the novel in a history of English literature of which he, as much as Briony is conscious. 236 00:28:37,130 --> 00:28:41,690 But all of this applies only to readers who read epigraphs. 237 00:28:41,690 --> 00:28:50,600 Some people skip them, and most who read them don't manage to keep them in mind through the whole chapter, which follows considering how they relate. 238 00:28:50,600 --> 00:28:58,580 And almost nobody reads the epigraph, having finished a chapter in order to consider how that epigraph had related to that chapter. 239 00:28:58,580 --> 00:29:06,920 Reading that verb can mean so many different things, but perhaps we're more likely to read epigraphs when they are. 240 00:29:06,920 --> 00:29:13,870 When they are only few. When, as in Atonement, there's only one for the whole novel. 241 00:29:13,870 --> 00:29:20,530 One of the most debated epigraphs in fiction is that of Anna Karenina, mine is vengeance. 242 00:29:20,530 --> 00:29:27,130 I will repay. Who generations of critics have asked, is I? 243 00:29:27,130 --> 00:29:35,110 Is it Tolstoy or is it God? And if it's God, is it pulls God as described by Paul to the Romans, 244 00:29:35,110 --> 00:29:38,960 from which the New Testament, from which New Testament book the quotation is taken? 245 00:29:38,960 --> 00:29:45,910 Or is it the retributive regard of Deuteronomy for which Paul, in his turn is quoting, 246 00:29:45,910 --> 00:29:52,930 This ambiguity has caused endless trouble because it is precisely the ambiguity of Anna's story as a whole. 247 00:29:52,930 --> 00:30:05,130 Who is punishing her? The same novel also famously gives an epigraph to only one of its chapters, Chapter 20 of Part five Smit's. 248 00:30:05,130 --> 00:30:15,680 Death. If vengeance is the subject of Anna's story, death is that of leavens vengeance to have his hands overtakes her, 249 00:30:15,680 --> 00:30:25,760 but he overcomes death, or at least he overcomes his suicidal refusal to accept a life that involves death. 250 00:30:25,760 --> 00:30:36,460 Chapter four shape. Sometimes the shape of chapters is obvious, the Old Testament Book of Job is divided into two sorry, 251 00:30:36,460 --> 00:30:45,220 it's divided into chapters largely according to who is speaking when he or one of his friends or God starts saying something. 252 00:30:45,220 --> 00:30:50,710 They typically do so in their own chapter in a bildungsroman. 253 00:30:50,710 --> 00:30:59,230 A novel concerned with an individual's development chapters can describe one particular phase of learning choices. 254 00:30:59,230 --> 00:31:08,020 A portrait of the artist as a young man does this with its five chapters corresponding roughly to the artists learning of language, 255 00:31:08,020 --> 00:31:13,510 politics, sex, God and art. 256 00:31:13,510 --> 00:31:17,710 In this respect, each chapter with something learnt and something lost, 257 00:31:17,710 --> 00:31:25,560 as it generally does when everyone learns something recapitulates the shape of the novel as a whole. 258 00:31:25,560 --> 00:31:31,620 Although, again, it's difficult to be conscious of this whilst one reads at least on the first reading, 259 00:31:31,620 --> 00:31:38,610 but there are a few details which may be easier to apprehend as one reads once one knows to look out for them. 260 00:31:38,610 --> 00:31:44,760 One is the absence of a chapter break at a point when you might expect it. 261 00:31:44,760 --> 00:31:58,140 In all four gospels, the trial of Jesus before the Sun, Hadrian, pilot Herod and pilot again Jesus scourging his dragging of the cross to Golgotha. 262 00:31:58,140 --> 00:32:06,250 His crucifixion, death and burial all take place in a single chapter. 263 00:32:06,250 --> 00:32:10,510 All the events in this list would have been obvious places for chapter breaks, 264 00:32:10,510 --> 00:32:19,760 but the Bible's editors clearly wished to assert that these events were of a piece and could not be interrupted. 265 00:32:19,760 --> 00:32:30,740 They shunned the rhetorical pause and kept within one chapters, remet the action of what was, on the one hand, only 24 hours and on the other. 266 00:32:30,740 --> 00:32:38,340 Hours of terrible extension and agony and an event which would alter cosmic history. 267 00:32:38,340 --> 00:32:43,170 It is therefore worth watching out for the break, which was which is absent particularly, 268 00:32:43,170 --> 00:32:47,910 I would note, in Russian novels, of which the average chapter length is much, 269 00:32:47,910 --> 00:32:58,300 much shorter than that of British novels, and therefore in which a long chapter is and probably contains a special event. 270 00:32:58,300 --> 00:33:08,710 It's also worth noting how chapters start and finish, some not novel novelists change chapters in order to introduce somebody new. 271 00:33:08,710 --> 00:33:12,460 And of these, a few to our attention to the fact book, 272 00:33:12,460 --> 00:33:22,150 four of Tom Jones called containing five pages of paper and with a build up to the introduction of the heroine. 273 00:33:22,150 --> 00:33:28,420 Indeed, we would for certain causes advise those of our male readers who have any hearts, etc., etc., etc. 274 00:33:28,420 --> 00:33:34,180 And now, without any further preface, we proceed to our next chapters. 275 00:33:34,180 --> 00:33:43,460 The next one is called a short hint of what we can do in the Sublime and a description of Misfire Western. 276 00:33:43,460 --> 00:33:49,730 Similarly, in Anthony trollops, Barchester Towers, the oleaginous Mr Slope is mentioned before, 277 00:33:49,730 --> 00:33:54,740 the narrator then interrupts himself quotation for Mr Slope, 278 00:33:54,740 --> 00:34:00,350 however, on his first introduction must not be brought before the public at the tail of a chapter. 279 00:34:00,350 --> 00:34:06,270 So Mr Slope gets a chapter of his own called the Bishop's Chaplain here. 280 00:34:06,270 --> 00:34:10,130 The effect of the narrator's self-consciousness is comic, 281 00:34:10,130 --> 00:34:17,390 but a comic effect can also be generated by a chapter break, mimicking a character's consciousness. 282 00:34:17,390 --> 00:34:26,480 The first chapter of Sterne's Tristram Shandy ends with Tristram saying quotation five did ever woman. 283 00:34:26,480 --> 00:34:31,910 Since the creation of the world interrupts a man with such a silly question. 284 00:34:31,910 --> 00:34:37,440 What was your father saying? Nothing. 285 00:34:37,440 --> 00:34:46,770 The ensuing chapter break then mimics the silence in which the act of procreative sex should, according to Tristram's, be performed. 286 00:34:46,770 --> 00:34:54,480 The 11th chapter of Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland ends with Alice in a courtroom, 287 00:34:54,480 --> 00:34:57,840 Alice watched the white rabbit as he fumbled over the list, 288 00:34:57,840 --> 00:35:04,770 feeling very curious to see what the next witness would be like for they haven't got much evidence yet, she said to herself. 289 00:35:04,770 --> 00:35:12,760 Imagine her surprise when the white rabbit read out at the top of his shrill little voice, the name Alice. 290 00:35:12,760 --> 00:35:22,950 The next chapter starts here. Cried Alice, quite forgetting in the flurry of the moment how large she had grown in the last few minutes. 291 00:35:22,950 --> 00:35:30,480 And there are less comic examples of the same technique in the Book of Job after Job has suffered a number of blows, 292 00:35:30,480 --> 00:35:37,590 including the loss of his animals, death of his children, and infliction of a painful and grotesque skin disease. 293 00:35:37,590 --> 00:35:42,090 His friends come to comfort him at the end of Chapter two. 294 00:35:42,090 --> 00:35:46,130 Quotations six. 295 00:35:46,130 --> 00:36:00,400 So they sat down with him upon the ground seven days and seven nights and none spoke a word onto him, for they saw that his grief was very great. 296 00:36:00,400 --> 00:36:15,110 Chapter three. After this, Joe opened his mouth and kissed his day, the silence between the two chapters is of indefinite extension. 297 00:36:15,110 --> 00:36:19,250 In the transition between the second and third sections of Conrad's Heart of Darkness, 298 00:36:19,250 --> 00:36:24,890 which, as I mentioned, has only three sections, a silence is also maintained. 299 00:36:24,890 --> 00:36:32,180 A Russian trader is enthusing to Marleau about the sinister Kurts quotation seven. 300 00:36:32,180 --> 00:36:37,280 I tell you, he said, this man has enlarged my mind. 301 00:36:37,280 --> 00:36:44,550 He opened his arms wide, staring at me with his little blue eyes that were perfectly round. 302 00:36:44,550 --> 00:36:52,460 Three. I looked at him, lost in astonishment. 303 00:36:52,460 --> 00:36:54,050 In all three of these examples, 304 00:36:54,050 --> 00:37:01,550 the break is significant because of the continuity which is maintained between the end of one chapter and the beginning of the next. 305 00:37:01,550 --> 00:37:08,990 More often, however, transitions between chapters involve a sharp change of scene and tone. 306 00:37:08,990 --> 00:37:17,810 One of the most perplexing examples of this that I know occurs in Dickens is Bleak House in the fifty ninth chapter. 307 00:37:17,810 --> 00:37:22,640 For those of you who haven't read it, a lady is on her run from her husband, on the run from her husband, 308 00:37:22,640 --> 00:37:28,610 who's just found out about an affair and a child she has had disguising herself as a poor woman. 309 00:37:28,610 --> 00:37:34,760 She makes her way across the countryside to a stinking pauper's cemetery where she knows that her former lover is buried. 310 00:37:34,760 --> 00:37:39,110 The young woman narrator who was just found out that she is the sad daughter, 311 00:37:39,110 --> 00:37:43,820 is in hot pursuit of her trying to save her when she arrives at the cemetery. 312 00:37:43,820 --> 00:37:50,870 She, not knowing that her mother is in disguise, finds what she thinks to be a poor woman lying with her face to the ground. 313 00:37:50,870 --> 00:37:57,950 The last sentence of the chapter is as follows. Quotation eight I passed on to the gate and stooped down. 314 00:37:57,950 --> 00:38:03,500 I lifted the heavy head, put the long, dark hair aside and turned the face. 315 00:38:03,500 --> 00:38:09,380 And it was my mother, cold and dead. 316 00:38:09,380 --> 00:38:13,430 Chapter 60. Perspective. 317 00:38:13,430 --> 00:38:20,330 I proceed to other passages of my narrative from the goodness of all about me, I derive such consolation as I can never think of unmoved. 318 00:38:20,330 --> 00:38:24,890 I've already said so much of myself and so much still remains that I will not dwell upon my sorrow. 319 00:38:24,890 --> 00:38:28,740 I had an illness that it was not a long one. 320 00:38:28,740 --> 00:38:39,480 This extraordinary example of psychological rupture has, I think, an unintended comic effect, but in many cases the effect is far from comic. 321 00:38:39,480 --> 00:38:49,620 In Elliott's Daniel Deronda, Gwendolyn's husband, Grandcourt informs her at the end of a chapter that a man who she detests will be dining with them. 322 00:38:49,620 --> 00:38:56,850 He is useful to me and he must be treated civilly. Silence, full stop. 323 00:38:56,850 --> 00:39:08,100 He reduces the narrator to the novels, only one word sentence and ends the chapter and that part of the novel which is concerned with Gwendoline, 324 00:39:08,100 --> 00:39:13,620 he finishes another of its multiple novels I'll be describing next week, 325 00:39:13,620 --> 00:39:22,810 but he finishes another of the sections of the novels of the novel concerning her by telling her, no, you will go yachting with me. 326 00:39:22,810 --> 00:39:32,680 The next time we see the couple, after a lot of intervening narration on the other plot, they are on the yacht and she is even more in his power. 327 00:39:32,680 --> 00:39:39,520 Some chapters and sections of novels and instalments and at moments of particularly high suspense, 328 00:39:39,520 --> 00:39:51,040 the literary equivalent of the cinematic cliff-hanger nineteen thirty seven in the same way Gwendoline ends one of her segments pallid, 329 00:39:51,040 --> 00:39:56,470 shrieking as it seemed with terror, the jewels scattered around her on the floor. 330 00:39:56,470 --> 00:40:06,910 We don't hear any more about it for about another 60 pages, but some chapters can be felt to end not as cliff-hangers, but arbitrarily. 331 00:40:06,910 --> 00:40:15,040 This is sometimes the case with Fielding, whose chapters tend to be about the same length as each other and end after a regular amount of time. 332 00:40:15,040 --> 00:40:20,110 It's like a parent coming in to a child watching a film and saying, Right, that's enough for you. 333 00:40:20,110 --> 00:40:27,700 Today, it's nine p.m. You could watch some more tomorrow. And pressing stop this abruptness creates a sense of artifice. 334 00:40:27,700 --> 00:40:31,360 Whereas, for example, I would say in Anna Karenina, 335 00:40:31,360 --> 00:40:40,930 the fact that some chapters peter out without any obvious reason for them ending serves to reduce the sense that this is art. 336 00:40:40,930 --> 00:40:45,580 Most events and moods in life do end vaguely, 337 00:40:45,580 --> 00:40:55,300 and it's only in relation to a few very decisive events that people actually refer metaphorically to chapters of their lives. 338 00:40:55,300 --> 00:41:06,580 Lives are not frequently obviously divided. Except, of course, by sleep, which is both frequent and regular now, 339 00:41:06,580 --> 00:41:11,620 it's one of the peculiarities of fictional characters that they hardly ever do sleep, 340 00:41:11,620 --> 00:41:15,850 but when they do fall asleep, it is often at the end of a chapter. 341 00:41:15,850 --> 00:41:22,510 Chapter 11 of Austins Northanger Abbey ends with the narrator stating quotation nine. 342 00:41:22,510 --> 00:41:26,260 And now I may dismiss my heroine to the sleepless couch, 343 00:41:26,260 --> 00:41:31,840 which is the true heroines portion to a pillow strewed with thorns and wet with tears and lucky. 344 00:41:31,840 --> 00:41:37,330 May she think herself if she get another good night's rest in the course of the next three months. 345 00:41:37,330 --> 00:41:45,730 The first part of Prestopino in Arizona, Crime and Punishment ends with Raskolnikov after committing his two murders, 346 00:41:45,730 --> 00:41:50,730 failing to get to sleep because he is haunted by the thought. 347 00:41:50,730 --> 00:41:58,030 Another common bedtime activity is also used to close chapters, although this time not out of boredom. 348 00:41:58,030 --> 00:42:05,250 Who'd watch someone sleep if you weren't in love with them, but out of discretion? 349 00:42:05,250 --> 00:42:11,490 Chapter five of Lawrences, the Rainbow, which contains the wedding of a virginal couple, 350 00:42:11,490 --> 00:42:16,710 ends with the villagers going to sing to them under their bedroom window. 351 00:42:16,710 --> 00:42:26,430 We end with the couple's perspective quotation 10 and they crept closer, closer together, hearts beating to one another. 352 00:42:26,430 --> 00:42:33,460 And even as the hymn rolled on, they ceased to hear it. 353 00:42:33,460 --> 00:42:41,970 In both sleeping and sex, it is the loss of a certain kind of consciousness that ends a chapter. 354 00:42:41,970 --> 00:42:50,940 Chapter five, a brief exhortation for those of you who are going to be sitting MoD's paper on the introduction to literary studies, 355 00:42:50,940 --> 00:43:01,350 read the prose extracts in Section B of the paper and ask yourself whether what you are given might include the beginning or the end of a chapter, 356 00:43:01,350 --> 00:43:10,410 or indeed the beginning of the end of a whole novel. You might well not be told in particular if an extract finishes at the end of the chapter. 357 00:43:10,410 --> 00:43:16,110 This is highly unlikely to be indicated, but you can say something along the lines of following. 358 00:43:16,110 --> 00:43:22,740 This paper does not indicate whether the extract includes the end of a chapter, but it seems possible for X reasons. 359 00:43:22,740 --> 00:43:30,170 And if this were the case, the implications for the meaning of the passage would be as follows. 360 00:43:30,170 --> 00:43:35,370 I think it is one of the faults of our age. And by that here, I mean the last two centuries, 361 00:43:35,370 --> 00:43:42,990 that there is unprecedentedly greater disparity between the amount of self decoration expected of men and of women. 362 00:43:42,990 --> 00:43:50,730 But I have heard men as well as women complain of this, that whereas women have a huge choice of types of clothes, 363 00:43:50,730 --> 00:43:57,330 jewellery and makeup from which to choose, men have a very limited palette indeed. 364 00:43:57,330 --> 00:44:04,410 And for this reason, such details as ties and cufflinks can assume assume great importance, 365 00:44:04,410 --> 00:44:11,340 because here at least, men enjoy some freedom of choice simply because of the relative formlessness of the novel. 366 00:44:11,340 --> 00:44:20,550 In relation to all other genres of verbal art, it is worth paying attention to such a few formal structures as it does have. 367 00:44:20,550 --> 00:44:25,080 I am the sort of man who wears an orange tie. 368 00:44:25,080 --> 00:44:35,010 This is the sort of novel that chooses to mark its chapters by Roman numerals or by Arabic numerals or by empty space. 369 00:44:35,010 --> 00:44:40,410 After all, one does not overlook whether or not a poem is rhymed no more. 370 00:44:40,410 --> 00:44:46,830 Should one overlook how a novel marks and uses its chapters? 371 00:44:46,830 --> 00:44:56,670 Epilogue, we tend to think of sorry, we tend we think of these as belonging to 19th century novels in particular, 372 00:44:56,670 --> 00:45:01,740 we think of epilogues as a kind of verisimilitude in this narration and engagement 373 00:45:01,740 --> 00:45:06,630 with its characters over a protracted period of denoted in narrative time, 374 00:45:06,630 --> 00:45:14,280 such that one a leap forward in time and increase in narrative speed needs to be acknowledged by name, 375 00:45:14,280 --> 00:45:19,330 which at least sets that final chapter apart from all of the others and may answer our 376 00:45:19,330 --> 00:45:24,420 curiosity about the later lives of the characters with whom we've become engaged. 377 00:45:24,420 --> 00:45:25,600 The narrator of Middlemarch, 378 00:45:25,600 --> 00:45:35,520 his finale asks Who can quite young lives after being longing company with them and not desire not to know what befalls them in their after years. 379 00:45:35,520 --> 00:45:46,620 But the subject of my epilogue is, in fact, not is not epilogues per say, but the future of chapters and of texts, 380 00:45:46,620 --> 00:45:54,750 because when one is interested in chapters and awareness of additions and media becomes particularly important, 381 00:45:54,750 --> 00:46:02,160 most recent editions and especially cheap editions of old novels often change the layout of the chapters. 382 00:46:02,160 --> 00:46:11,460 For example, by replacing Roman numerals, which not everyone now finds easy to read by Arabic numerals or by not retaining the original practise of 383 00:46:11,460 --> 00:46:18,300 starting chapters on a new page in order to save paper or by not reproducing the original contents page, 384 00:46:18,300 --> 00:46:25,110 or by giving a shortened version of the title of each chapter and sometimes of the novel itself. 385 00:46:25,110 --> 00:46:29,980 Not only the words of a novel can change in translation. 386 00:46:29,980 --> 00:46:38,220 A recent edition of an English translation of Doctor Zhivago reproduces the book titles at the top of every page, 387 00:46:38,220 --> 00:46:42,120 which is relatively common in English editions of novels. 388 00:46:42,120 --> 00:46:45,420 But I've never seen in any Russian edition. 389 00:46:45,420 --> 00:46:53,430 Online versions of printed novels tend either to face the chapter divisions like the Project Gutenberg Etext, 390 00:46:53,430 --> 00:46:57,630 which presents the whole of a novel on one on one Web page, 391 00:46:57,630 --> 00:47:07,770 or else tend to exaggerate them like many texts of the Bible do in which each chapter of each book is opened as a different Web page. 392 00:47:07,770 --> 00:47:16,260 The effect in the second case can be to enforce one sense, one sense of the chapters as discrete entities, 393 00:47:16,260 --> 00:47:25,440 which is perhaps particularly appropriate when those chapter boundaries coincide with the original instalment boundaries of serialised novels. 394 00:47:25,440 --> 00:47:30,720 But it can feel arbitrary and life changing short play vinyl records when trying 395 00:47:30,720 --> 00:47:35,670 to listen to a symphony and means also that you are without the white space, 396 00:47:35,670 --> 00:47:45,960 which you see between chapters in all print editions and in those E readers, including ebooks, which follow print format. 397 00:47:45,960 --> 00:47:51,660 Getting even further away from the novel's first published, there are film adaptations. 398 00:47:51,660 --> 00:48:01,980 Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice is 61 chapters long, and there are about as many cuts in the two hour film adaptations of it which exist. 399 00:48:01,980 --> 00:48:08,430 But these cuts don't involve blackout's or whiteouts, which the end of chapters do. 400 00:48:08,430 --> 00:48:16,410 Nor do most of them, of course, involve the narrator's chapter closing ruminations since the narrator is cut out altogether. 401 00:48:16,410 --> 00:48:23,400 I wonder whether all future editions of Master Georgie, perhaps when it's out of copyright in two thousand sixty eight, 402 00:48:23,400 --> 00:48:28,040 will be printed with crossed muskets under the plate titles. 403 00:48:28,040 --> 00:48:34,730 Perhaps it's a minor point, a replacement of flamboyant cufflinks by simple buttons, 404 00:48:34,730 --> 00:48:40,760 but what if the word plate were to be replaced by the word chapter? 405 00:48:40,760 --> 00:48:49,010 So if you are at all interested in chapters, it is worth reading the earliest printed edition you can find. 406 00:48:49,010 --> 00:48:53,450 Don't trust the way I've reproduced chapter breaks on your handouts. 407 00:48:53,450 --> 00:49:03,410 I have, for example, given all chapter numbers as Arabic numerals between dashes, which has nothing at all to do with the original presentation. 408 00:49:03,410 --> 00:49:10,490 But you can consider as carefully intended the non attribution of quotation 10 to Chapter five of Lawrences 409 00:49:10,490 --> 00:49:18,090 the Rainbow and its positioning as the last on this handout in order to give it the resonance of an ending. 410 00:49:18,090 --> 00:49:27,928 The end.