1 00:00:00,360 --> 00:00:05,910 Well, thank you very much indeed. Hamdani and Karen, for these very generous introductions. 2 00:00:05,910 --> 00:00:12,480 The Eric Clapton story is quite true, and I could remember the territorial conversation that that gave rise to it. 3 00:00:12,480 --> 00:00:23,310 But since then, I have heard of Eric Clapton. Nicholas Close kind invitation to give this lecture affords me the opportunity to share with 4 00:00:23,310 --> 00:00:30,690 an audience the excitement and difficulties of writing a large book on the Enlightenment. 5 00:00:30,690 --> 00:00:34,560 Let me explain how it came to take on this task. It was not. 6 00:00:34,560 --> 00:00:45,630 It was not my idea. Originally, my inaugural lecture in 2011 concerned conspiracy theories in the Enlightenment. 7 00:00:45,630 --> 00:00:53,340 Some focussing on Freemasons. Some Jesuits. A shortened version was published in The Times. 8 00:00:53,340 --> 00:01:04,260 It brought the responses from both Freemasons and Jesuits. The librarian of the London Museum of Freemasonry invited me to join the list 9 00:01:04,260 --> 00:01:10,260 and then master of Campion Hall generously invited me and my wife to dinner. 10 00:01:10,260 --> 00:01:17,940 I also received a letter, and I do mean a letter written down on paper from the director of Penguin Books, 11 00:01:17,940 --> 00:01:22,770 inviting me to write a book on the Enlightenment for a general audience. 12 00:01:22,770 --> 00:01:32,960 I realised at once both that this was an assignment at the very limit of my powers and also something which I intensely wanted to do. 13 00:01:32,960 --> 00:01:36,110 We met and found we could do business together. 14 00:01:36,110 --> 00:01:45,440 I composed a synopsis summarising the Enlightenment and 10 chapters which met with the approval of Penguin's board of directors. 15 00:01:45,440 --> 00:01:54,380 I also consulted some colleagues in Oxford, had written books for Penguin, amongst them McCullough and Ferran Dipolar, who is now in Princeton. 16 00:01:54,380 --> 00:02:03,260 And they gave me some good advice. One particularly wise counsel was to employ an agent to negotiate with Penguin on my behalf. 17 00:02:03,260 --> 00:02:07,400 After that, nothing was left to do but to write the book. 18 00:02:07,400 --> 00:02:12,130 So I sat down and began to read the wealth of nations. 19 00:02:12,130 --> 00:02:24,250 I didn't, of course, will see then nobody did that the events of recent months and days would add a sharper edge to thinking about the Enlightenment. 20 00:02:24,250 --> 00:02:28,810 That's something I'll come back to at the end of this talk. 21 00:02:28,810 --> 00:02:36,280 In writing in general, survey of the Enlightenment, well, it has, of course, a number of models, some more attainable than others. 22 00:02:36,280 --> 00:02:42,640 The encyclopaedic study by Jonathan Israel in three massive volumes four, 23 00:02:42,640 --> 00:02:49,360 if you include his subsequent intellectual history of the French Revolution, was far beyond my reach. 24 00:02:49,360 --> 00:02:57,970 And in the case, I'm not sympathetic to his emphasis on Spinoza and his description of all virtue to the radical wing of the Enlightenment, 25 00:02:57,970 --> 00:03:05,020 which is supposed to have originated from Spinoza. I haven't made much use of the more accessible surveys. 26 00:03:05,020 --> 00:03:11,320 But Peter Norman Hampson and Anthony Percodan. But I wanted to write my own book. 27 00:03:11,320 --> 00:03:22,390 But to do that, I had to find answers to number of questions, which we summed up as when, where, what and finally why. 28 00:03:22,390 --> 00:03:30,640 The answers may not be intellectually unimpeachable, but they are working answers, which I need in order to write the book at all. 29 00:03:30,640 --> 00:03:37,390 First, when was the Enlightenment? Some people are very sure that they knew Margaret, Jacob says flatly. 30 00:03:37,390 --> 00:03:42,190 Flatly, the European Enlightenment began in 16 89. 31 00:03:42,190 --> 00:03:48,160 This reminds me of how I learnt at school that the Renaissance began in 14:53. 32 00:03:48,160 --> 00:03:54,490 For my own purposes, I place the Enlightenment in the period between 60 and 80 in 1790. 33 00:03:54,490 --> 00:04:03,340 But of course, it spills over at either end. I can't ignore its antecedents in Erasmus and in the Republic of Letters, 34 00:04:03,340 --> 00:04:10,180 which created the infrastructure of communication, which the Enlightenment was a huge correspondence. 35 00:04:10,180 --> 00:04:18,290 Networks relied. At the other end, I want to give due credit to the radical group of English and listeners, 36 00:04:18,290 --> 00:04:24,320 which included William Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, other son in law Shelly. 37 00:04:24,320 --> 00:04:28,520 It may seem surprising to think of Shirley as a radical, enlightened her. 38 00:04:28,520 --> 00:04:36,620 Wasn't he romantic, but is less surprising if you read his wildly anti-Christian preface to Queen Mab when he wrote 39 00:04:36,620 --> 00:04:45,500 Health and eventually the Christian religion will all be known from footnotes to Paradise Lost. 40 00:04:45,500 --> 00:04:51,530 If the Enlightenment temporal boundaries are fluid, its spatial boundaries even more so. 41 00:04:51,530 --> 00:04:58,190 Robert Darnton wrote in 1997 that the Enlightenment was, I quote, a movement, a cause, 42 00:04:58,190 --> 00:05:05,810 a campaign to change minds and reform institutions which could be located in time and pinned down in space. 43 00:05:05,810 --> 00:05:14,330 Paris in the early 18th century. End quote. Listen, this is the famous one entitled George Washington's False Teeth. 44 00:05:14,330 --> 00:05:20,480 He qualifies this by interesting many other centres of the Enlightenment, from Edinburgh to Philadelphia. 45 00:05:20,480 --> 00:05:25,700 But it leaves it unclear how they were related to The Fountainhead in Paris, 46 00:05:25,700 --> 00:05:34,080 where a small group of militant philosophers were working, as he puts it, to persuade propagandise and change the world. 47 00:05:34,080 --> 00:05:41,600 Now, of course, I can see down to the point. It's all too easy to talk too loosely of the Enlightenment, regardless into itself. 48 00:05:41,600 --> 00:05:44,630 Everything, everything that happened in the 18th century, 49 00:05:44,630 --> 00:05:52,400 as this is to sharpen one's focus nevertheless will have to respect as well as admire the enormous reach 50 00:05:52,400 --> 00:05:59,840 of Jonathan Israel's the opera extending from Peru at one extreme to Greece and Russia at the other. 51 00:05:59,840 --> 00:06:09,290 In my old case, I've gone for geographical breadth. At the risk of diffuse this, my intention has been to give roughly equal attention to France, 52 00:06:09,290 --> 00:06:14,110 Germany and the British Isles, particularly the northern portion. 53 00:06:14,110 --> 00:06:17,650 The publisher told me that I should write the book in such a way, 54 00:06:17,650 --> 00:06:22,840 the readers without knew that I was a professor of German and obtrusive and manage that, 55 00:06:22,840 --> 00:06:28,090 but it would be in no doubt that I was got them to give attention to Germany. 56 00:06:28,090 --> 00:06:34,660 In any case, to redress the balance and to continue the work of my predecessor in the chair, 57 00:06:34,660 --> 00:06:42,010 Jim Reed, with his pathbreaking book Light in Germany, seen through unknown enlightenment. 58 00:06:42,010 --> 00:06:46,780 If the German Enlightenment is little known, that's the fault of the Germans. 59 00:06:46,780 --> 00:06:55,180 A dominant tradition in German historiography described by Jew Willy and his best friend lecturer two years ago downplayed the 60 00:06:55,180 --> 00:07:04,150 Enlightenment as a shallow and short lived import from France and rescued good and Schiller from the shameful imputation of 61 00:07:04,150 --> 00:07:13,300 enlightenment by assigning the earlier works to a student drunk and later works to revive our classicism as Oberlin and start 62 00:07:13,300 --> 00:07:21,550 to see compounded the mischief by assigning the great cosmopolitan thinker herder to his so-called counter enlightenment. 63 00:07:21,550 --> 00:07:28,270 The misunderstandings produced the English speaking world by Berlin's eccentric view of the Enlightenment, 64 00:07:28,270 --> 00:07:37,000 something which lolls broccoli and I tried to rectify at a conference held in this very room on as Oberlin and the Enlightenment, 65 00:07:37,000 --> 00:07:42,110 the proceedings of which I believe have just been published. 66 00:07:42,110 --> 00:07:47,570 Other centres of the Enlightenment will receive attention with more than a little help from my friends, 67 00:07:47,570 --> 00:07:52,630 the Netherlands does have problems with the centre of the international book trade. 68 00:07:52,630 --> 00:07:58,120 Especially the turn of the 17, the 18th centuries when it provides a refuge for many, 69 00:07:58,120 --> 00:08:05,590 Hugo's fleeing from persecution in France is the other Pierre Bill, one of the heroes of my book. 70 00:08:05,590 --> 00:08:13,720 It is his journal Nouvelle de la Republique de Letra, and compiled his endlessly fascinating dictionary philosophic. 71 00:08:13,720 --> 00:08:20,500 And by the way, although Bill lived for about 20 years in the United provinces, he never learnt much. 72 00:08:20,500 --> 00:08:23,590 He lived in the kind of French speaking bubble. 73 00:08:23,590 --> 00:08:34,270 I've been fortunate enough through the launch of a book published in Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment to get to know Pascal is true. 74 00:08:34,270 --> 00:08:43,870 It is the leading authority on the Greek Enlightenment, who, amongst other things, has given me a policy of an important anti-clerical work. 75 00:08:43,870 --> 00:08:50,950 But the radical Christodoulou of is on theocracy, which is available only in Greek. 76 00:08:50,950 --> 00:08:57,220 I find myself also paying increasing attention to the Enlightenment in Scandinavian countries and areas, 77 00:08:57,220 --> 00:09:00,730 which Jonathan Israel has recently been writing. 78 00:09:00,730 --> 00:09:10,300 Finally, to illustrate the spread of enlightenment as recently sent a photograph of a chart showing the road to happiness and perfection, 79 00:09:10,300 --> 00:09:17,050 it a kind of 12-Step programme from the Museum of the University of Tartu in Estonia. 80 00:09:17,050 --> 00:09:26,950 It was compiled originally in German by George Friedrich Peru, and it is of more media then called Mempool God and Wittenberg is. 81 00:09:26,950 --> 00:09:32,830 Issue three became the first rector of a newly founded, Re founded University of Dapat. 82 00:09:32,830 --> 00:09:43,600 As was then known. He was active in Leitner, who campaigned for scientific advances and academic freedom and urged abolition of serfdom. 83 00:09:43,600 --> 00:09:49,450 So the Enlightenment travelled to Estonia, but was also present in England. 84 00:09:49,450 --> 00:09:59,140 The question isn't entirely straightforward and isn't entirely frivolous. On the one hand, England was widely seen as the heartland of enlightenment. 85 00:09:59,140 --> 00:10:07,210 It was the home of bacon lock and above all, Newton Voltaire presented England as the Land of Enlightenment. 86 00:10:07,210 --> 00:10:15,280 It is text version variously entitled Literary Philosophic and Letters concerning the English Nation. 87 00:10:15,280 --> 00:10:21,350 Which includes enthusiastic exposition of Newtonian physics and astronomy. 88 00:10:21,350 --> 00:10:27,730 Letter of 1735 Voltaire speaks of England, the land, the philosophers. 89 00:10:27,730 --> 00:10:33,220 And then in the sector to do it at all, he writes, that is chiefly in philosophy. 90 00:10:33,220 --> 00:10:36,720 The English have been the masters of other nations. 91 00:10:36,720 --> 00:10:46,110 In 1780, Yaakov Sievers, one of the chief advisers to Catherine the Great Ruth of England, was that country produced without contradiction. 92 00:10:46,110 --> 00:10:53,160 The most enlightened in Europe at present, and 10 years later, the Russian traveller comes in route from London. 93 00:10:53,160 --> 00:11:01,260 I quote Andrew Kahn's translation I'm engaged in philosophising sorry, such as the action of English climate. 94 00:11:01,260 --> 00:11:11,530 Here is the birthplace of Newton Lock and Hobbs. John Kukoc and the late Roy Porter have made great claim for English enlightenment based, 95 00:11:11,530 --> 00:11:19,640 especially on this supposedly broad minded outlook that was gaining ascendancy in the Church of England. 96 00:11:19,640 --> 00:11:23,810 Although the hand, frankly, eventually and following him, 97 00:11:23,810 --> 00:11:29,840 John Robertson have argued against the idea of an English enlightenment on the grounds that 98 00:11:29,840 --> 00:11:36,750 was the England New Party philosophy consciously advancing the cause of enlightenment. 99 00:11:36,750 --> 00:11:45,600 If you want to see her perpetually England was enlightened compared to the continent, we can look at the figure of William Winston Winston, 100 00:11:45,600 --> 00:11:54,180 who in 17 02 succeeded Newton as leukaemia and professor at Cambridge, might seem impeccably enlightened. 101 00:11:54,180 --> 00:12:02,830 He was a brilliant mathematician who did important work in astronomy, particularly in calculating the orbits of comets. 102 00:12:02,830 --> 00:12:07,210 And help to find the method of determining determining longitude. 103 00:12:07,210 --> 00:12:13,360 He was also a biblical scholar who published demonstrations that all prophecies in the Bible, 104 00:12:13,360 --> 00:12:18,410 even those in the apocryphal, apocryphal writings had been fulfilled. 105 00:12:18,410 --> 00:12:23,960 And the Earth really had been covered in darkness at the time of Christ crucifixion, 106 00:12:23,960 --> 00:12:30,540 although it was given later remarked no interest story and had noticed this event at the time. 107 00:12:30,540 --> 00:12:39,120 Like Newton, Wisdom just disbelieved in the Trinity. But unlike Newton, he made his views public and was dismissed from his chair. 108 00:12:39,120 --> 00:12:48,600 In his book Astronomical Principles of Religion, Natural revealed 1714 Amid serious studies of Comets, 109 00:12:48,600 --> 00:12:53,970 he also thought he'd found the answer to the difficult question where Hill was located. 110 00:12:53,970 --> 00:12:56,160 He maintained that the new testable description of [INAUDIBLE], 111 00:12:56,160 --> 00:13:02,800 I quote does in every circumstance so exactly agree with the nature of a comet ascending 112 00:13:02,800 --> 00:13:08,160 to the hot regions near the sun and going into the cold regions beyond Saturn, 113 00:13:08,160 --> 00:13:14,690 with its low looking tail rising up from it through several ages or periods of revolving. 114 00:13:14,690 --> 00:13:19,740 This in the sight of all that happened of our ear and the rest of the system and 115 00:13:19,740 --> 00:13:25,920 quote the sinuous must be condemned to travel perpetually on the surface of a comet, 116 00:13:25,920 --> 00:13:33,270 thereby quote a 40th terrible but most useful spectacle to the rest of God's rational creatures. 117 00:13:33,270 --> 00:13:38,550 And we still don't forget with writing over 30 years after Bill in his positive, 118 00:13:38,550 --> 00:13:47,890 Ursula commit and argued powerfully against all attempts to interpret comets as signs of punishment from God. 119 00:13:47,890 --> 00:13:56,110 By comparison with must be, Crystal must be considered only a very partial representative of the Enlightenment. 120 00:13:56,110 --> 00:14:03,130 What you have to do then to count as enlightened. That's a question I intend to evade. 121 00:14:03,130 --> 00:14:08,620 I shall offer a set of boxes to be ticked, but anyone wanting to qualify as a. 122 00:14:08,620 --> 00:14:15,100 Let's not try to reduce the Enlightenment to a formula, although I can do so entirely. 123 00:14:15,100 --> 00:14:22,240 I shall try as far as possible to avoid generalisations. Beginning the Enlightenment did this or that. 124 00:14:22,240 --> 00:14:27,520 I would rather explore a number of themes of twelve thou single out three. 125 00:14:27,520 --> 00:14:38,240 And each of these themes is this way ambivalent. First, happiness, my book of the provisional subtitle, The Quest for Happiness, 126 00:14:38,240 --> 00:14:45,170 we find repeatedly amongst Enlightenment thinkers the idea that happiness on this Earth is possible, 127 00:14:45,170 --> 00:14:50,360 whether as fulfilment of God's intention or of humanity's history. 128 00:14:50,360 --> 00:14:55,850 Adam Smith writes in the theory of Moral Sentiments, The happiness of mankind, 129 00:14:55,850 --> 00:15:02,480 as well as of all other rational creatures, seems to be in the original purpose intended by the author of Nature. 130 00:15:02,480 --> 00:15:05,310 When he brought them into existence. 131 00:15:05,310 --> 00:15:17,160 Labelmates wrote Round 16, 71 that caught the soul and philosophising was for use in life and to increase the power and happiness of mankind. 132 00:15:17,160 --> 00:15:22,560 And he also wrote, Wisdom is the science of happiness. 133 00:15:22,560 --> 00:15:29,990 But I think with lately, it's sort of the team of have this was laid down in the Constitution of the Universe. 134 00:15:29,990 --> 00:15:35,330 But the the sunny optimism of is the odyssey. 135 00:15:35,330 --> 00:15:40,850 The work of a philosophical Mr. Pickwick provoked considerable scepticism. 136 00:15:40,850 --> 00:15:52,130 Voltaire questioned it sharply, and the article vindicated a philosophy entitled To take what this chefs to the pope and Pope's philosophical mentor, 137 00:15:52,130 --> 00:16:03,000 Bolingbroke are all put on the spot. Yes, Voltaire says universe is a spectacle of order, but orders nothing to do with happiness. 138 00:16:03,000 --> 00:16:09,030 The soldiers manifest the system whereby all species live by killing one another. 139 00:16:09,030 --> 00:16:17,640 Flies are killed by spiders, spiders by small birds, small birds, the eagles, eagle eagles by human beings, 140 00:16:17,640 --> 00:16:26,190 humans for each other and perhaps ultimately by devils is equally manifest and process by which a stone develops in the bladder, 141 00:16:26,190 --> 00:16:32,910 causing unspeakable agony to the person concerned. We remember how encoded the life Nuzzi. 142 00:16:32,910 --> 00:16:39,690 Dr. Pangalos retains his optimism not only during the Lisbon earthquake, but even after he's been hanged, 143 00:16:39,690 --> 00:16:46,820 cut down partially dissected, showed up again and condemned to be a galley slave. 144 00:16:46,820 --> 00:16:51,470 But, you know, the happiness were not insured by God. 145 00:16:51,470 --> 00:16:59,900 Perhaps one could ignore God and try through human effort to make the world a happier place when life moves toward happiness. 146 00:16:59,900 --> 00:17:07,850 They often mean not individual happiness, which of Hume says drastic aside, is not to be thought of. 147 00:17:07,850 --> 00:17:14,450 But the several preconditions for happiness or for the body are public or felicity public, 148 00:17:14,450 --> 00:17:19,520 thus also showing the Shasta books the three ties to the Felicity public. 149 00:17:19,520 --> 00:17:28,430 1770 says individual happiness can be measured, but public happiness can happen is what remains of a. 150 00:17:28,430 --> 00:17:32,900 They have to listen closely here. Happiness is what remains of air. 151 00:17:32,900 --> 00:17:40,310 After subtracting B and C, what is the amount of work a man can do without becoming miserable? 152 00:17:40,310 --> 00:17:49,180 B If the amount of work he must do to secure basic necessities and see if the amount of work demanded of him by his rulers. 153 00:17:49,180 --> 00:17:53,500 Happiness is secured by the relation amongst these three elements. 154 00:17:53,500 --> 00:18:02,020 It depends on how much you work is what you want to do as opposed to what you need to do or are made to do. 155 00:18:02,020 --> 00:18:09,670 In order to increase 350 public like must put enormous energy into practical improvements. 156 00:18:09,670 --> 00:18:14,750 And this practical enlightenment will see your chapter in my book. 157 00:18:14,750 --> 00:18:23,960 There are many practical things to be done, such as improving roads, drilling marshes, reforming agriculture, educating children, caring for the sick. 158 00:18:23,960 --> 00:18:31,820 Sometimes these methods, these measures were undertaken by inviting despots such as Peter and Catherine in Russia. 159 00:18:31,820 --> 00:18:36,500 Frederick the Great in Prussia, Georgia, the second in Austria. 160 00:18:36,500 --> 00:18:41,750 Sometimes the initiative came from individual landowners or patriotic societies. 161 00:18:41,750 --> 00:18:45,830 Societies for practical improvement sprang up everywhere. 162 00:18:45,830 --> 00:18:56,330 But the 17 forties, most of the larger towns in Britain and many smaller ones had a number of societies concerned with improvement in some form, 163 00:18:56,330 --> 00:19:08,870 the Lunar Society of Birmingham is a famous example. In this practical sense, we can certainly talk about the spread of enlightenment in England. 164 00:19:08,870 --> 00:19:14,800 Similar societies come into being throughout Europe and beyond. 165 00:19:14,800 --> 00:19:28,390 For example, the Spanish and later companies founded the Royal Society of the Friends of the Country in 1764 and buy it in Level 12 most societies. 166 00:19:28,390 --> 00:19:37,510 Have you found it in the Spanish voice royalties in America? So perhaps more enlightenment spread to Latin America? 167 00:19:37,510 --> 00:19:46,840 Agriculture attracted particular attention after Young, who surveyed the lamentable state of agriculture in France shortly before the revolution, 168 00:19:46,840 --> 00:19:54,340 wrote Agriculture is beyond all doubt the foundation of every other art, business or profession. 169 00:19:54,340 --> 00:20:01,420 Gupta introduces into his novel Liliana A, who caught in the period of 20 years, 170 00:20:01,420 --> 00:20:07,000 who quietly done much to develop many branches of agriculture and encouraged everything, 171 00:20:07,000 --> 00:20:13,480 was beneficial for the fields, animals and people and thus promoted the truest enlightenment. 172 00:20:13,480 --> 00:20:23,200 And could this, of course, is a polemical stroke against the philosophical enlightenment was good a thought had issued in the French Revolution. 173 00:20:23,200 --> 00:20:28,160 England was again the peacemaker in agricultural enlightenment. 174 00:20:28,160 --> 00:20:33,890 The innovation with people whom I first encountered in all over history, such as Jethro Tull, 175 00:20:33,890 --> 00:20:42,570 who invented the seed drill and turned up 2000, qualify them as important builders of the Enlightenment. 176 00:20:42,570 --> 00:20:48,840 Of the Great Imported, an English farmer named Christopher Brown to demonstrate new methods. 177 00:20:48,840 --> 00:20:59,740 Unfortunately, Brown didn't like taking orders from Prussian officials, was charged with insubordination and ended up in a Berlin prison. 178 00:20:59,740 --> 00:21:06,430 New implement such the iron flow you systems of crop rotation and new crops such as potato 179 00:21:06,430 --> 00:21:12,880 spread across Europe despite frequent resistance from farmers to grow as intended, 180 00:21:12,880 --> 00:21:17,140 re-emerge in the 1760s, introduce the potato. 181 00:21:17,140 --> 00:21:24,010 But the peasants regarded it as unfit for human consumption of the animals until the sweet potatoes. 182 00:21:24,010 --> 00:21:31,810 But the famine of 1770. The search for happiness then turns out to be very down to earth subjects. 183 00:21:31,810 --> 00:21:39,330 I want to give some credit to to the many rural clergymen who spend practical enlightenment and little pen portraits of 184 00:21:39,330 --> 00:21:47,560 some of Oovernor in Alsace who gave his name to Oberlin College in Ohio and the great Phoenician light show genius. 185 00:21:47,560 --> 00:21:58,310 I know who the present day Finns are familiar with his name, who would not only introduce many practical measures for the rich folks to human rights. 186 00:21:58,310 --> 00:22:19,140 But not by second theme, which I will leave empiricism, excuse me. 187 00:22:19,140 --> 00:22:23,460 The last one began with a 180 degree turn in the conception of knowledge. 188 00:22:23,460 --> 00:22:31,830 The rationalistic heart looked at his own mind for absolutely fundamental truths and felt his own existence and existence of God, 189 00:22:31,830 --> 00:22:37,880 the latter being something which not many people nowadays would consider beyond all doubt. 190 00:22:37,880 --> 00:22:45,030 Look, on the other hand, assumed the mind was a blank slate which required all this knowledge of compensation and reflection. 191 00:22:45,030 --> 00:22:47,600 You started from empirical data, 192 00:22:47,600 --> 00:22:54,620 such as the fact that some objects influence one another distance and the set of emerging streams of invisible invisible particles 193 00:22:54,620 --> 00:23:04,070 to transmit the motion at previous enquiries have done use mathematics to work out the theory of gravitation instead of deduction. 194 00:23:04,070 --> 00:23:11,500 The alignment favoured induction. Looking out of the world have consequences in many fields. 195 00:23:11,500 --> 00:23:18,490 One was the understanding of the Bible since the Reformation had been known at least two scholars, 196 00:23:18,490 --> 00:23:23,170 though some essential Christian doctrines, had no support from the Bible. 197 00:23:23,170 --> 00:23:29,260 It was found that the only verse which might be thought to apply the doctrine of the Trinity. 198 00:23:29,260 --> 00:23:36,970 One John five seven had quite different wording in all the manuscripts available to him, muses himself. 199 00:23:36,970 --> 00:23:39,770 Engaged in textual criticism. 200 00:23:39,770 --> 00:23:47,570 There was also enough, except enough of the Bible to think the account of creation in Genesis was compatible with modern science. 201 00:23:47,570 --> 00:23:55,370 He pointed out the supposed testament to the incarnation in one Timothy 3:16, which runs. 202 00:23:55,370 --> 00:24:02,810 And in the authorised version, great is a mystery of Godzilla's God was manifest in the flesh with a fourth reading. 203 00:24:02,810 --> 00:24:13,670 Unknown before the sixth century, other texts have not God, but which Texas scholars don't tend to undermine the Bible. 204 00:24:13,670 --> 00:24:16,430 When John M. Principles was Edmund Hall, 205 00:24:16,430 --> 00:24:25,700 Oxford produced just before his death in 1787 and addition of the Greek New Testament with 30000 variant readings. 206 00:24:25,700 --> 00:24:30,080 His aim was to stabilise the text by eliminating errors, 207 00:24:30,080 --> 00:24:39,170 but the eye catching figure of 30000 suggested rather, the text of the Bible could not be finally determined. 208 00:24:39,170 --> 00:24:39,860 Eventually, 209 00:24:39,860 --> 00:24:47,660 the Bible became a book and the other book composed at various times by various authors and containing many of the errors which are inevitable. 210 00:24:47,660 --> 00:24:58,580 What it takes is repeatedly copied, not to mention the fields of such as Voltaire, a grateful father for the absurdities they found in the Bible. 211 00:24:58,580 --> 00:25:05,960 Voltaire, for example, laughs. The strange prohibitions in the law You mustn't eat eels because they have no scales. 212 00:25:05,960 --> 00:25:14,210 You mustn't eat the here because it chews the cud and lacks a cleft food, whereas in fact, it doesn't chew the cud and thus of a class food. 213 00:25:14,210 --> 00:25:21,350 And he wasn't he birds that walk on all fours and easily prohibition to obey. 214 00:25:21,350 --> 00:25:24,650 But empiricism isn't a straightforward matter. 215 00:25:24,650 --> 00:25:31,940 After all, if you realise the evidence of unneeded senses, you go on thinking the sun goes round the Earth. 216 00:25:31,940 --> 00:25:42,660 Reasoned reflection requires a teach one better. Many people on the evidence of their senses attest highly improbable things such as miracles. 217 00:25:42,660 --> 00:25:53,430 There was one enlightened Pope Benedict, the 14th, who reigned from 1740 to 1758, who accepted the findings of modern science, 218 00:25:53,430 --> 00:26:00,540 explains many supposed supernatural phenomena from natural causes campaigned against superstition 219 00:26:00,540 --> 00:26:09,030 and a two gifted female scientists appointed to university cheers as archbishop of Bologna. 220 00:26:09,030 --> 00:26:16,080 He destroyed the file of the Virgin of Milk and the piece of Moses Rod was on display there. 221 00:26:16,080 --> 00:26:23,460 And yet, despite his doubts, Benedict was obliged to accept the miracles performed by the flying Saint 222 00:26:23,460 --> 00:26:29,430 Giuseppe Copper Tino because his feats were tested by many reputable witnesses. 223 00:26:29,430 --> 00:26:40,050 Giuseppe had been banned for church services for some 35 years, but was used to distract the congregation by flying up and down the nave, 224 00:26:40,050 --> 00:26:47,370 and he's also been seen flying around church spires and this, according to many trustworthy witnesses. 225 00:26:47,370 --> 00:26:55,320 Still, Giuseppe had lived in the 17th century the new living witnesses to his feats of levitation. 226 00:26:55,320 --> 00:27:03,810 Yet of whom Portugal eschewed miracles. There were many living witnesses to the miraculous cures believed to have taken place in the cemetery. 227 00:27:03,810 --> 00:27:12,710 For me, to the tune of saintly gentlest falsehood, the police who died in 1728. 228 00:27:12,710 --> 00:27:17,300 Many witnesses of unimpeachable integrity confirm those miracles. 229 00:27:17,300 --> 00:27:20,210 Yet who says they are not widely accepted? 230 00:27:20,210 --> 00:27:31,290 Quote What are we to oppose to such a cloud of witnesses, but the absolute impossibility or miraculous nature of the events which they relate? 231 00:27:31,290 --> 00:27:38,510 And this surely in the eyes of all reasonable people, will alone be regarded as a sufficient refutation. 232 00:27:38,510 --> 00:27:45,920 We probably all agree, but this isn't quite an empirical argument. Recent prior conviction was a miracle. 233 00:27:45,920 --> 00:27:53,390 A violation of the order of nature is impossible, and therefore the New Testament can be strong enough to provide evidence for it. 234 00:27:53,390 --> 00:27:59,930 And it also rests on the conviction that you knew for the order of nature is. 235 00:27:59,930 --> 00:28:02,060 Hume doesn't consider the possibility, 236 00:28:02,060 --> 00:28:10,800 the possibility that a supposedly miraculous event might be the real result of natural causes, which are not yet understood. 237 00:28:10,800 --> 00:28:16,170 His argument takes us to the limit of empirical evidence. Nevertheless, in general, 238 00:28:16,170 --> 00:28:26,100 the empirical scrutiny of evidence is an enormously powerful instrument to get to the truth and to repel claims that are based merely on authority. 239 00:28:26,100 --> 00:28:32,610 And they will see that my favourite enlightenment text includes some the code to the claims of authority. 240 00:28:32,610 --> 00:28:41,760 But the simple application of courageous good sounds, good sense and attention to the fact to sample most of Hume's essays Spinoza of 241 00:28:41,760 --> 00:28:48,160 Bible Criticism Bakery on crimes and punishment and count on perpetual peace. 242 00:28:48,160 --> 00:28:56,800 Now, my third theme is empathy. One of the philosophers who did most to shape the Enlightenment was Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 243 00:28:56,800 --> 00:29:06,460 3rd Earl of Shastri, who died in 1713 53 human beings with both social and sociable quote. 244 00:29:06,460 --> 00:29:12,760 Eating and drinking with natural herding is so too, if any appetite or sense be natural. 245 00:29:12,760 --> 00:29:22,360 The sense of fellowship is the same end quote. Natural affection draws a couple together and tells them to look after the helpless infant. 246 00:29:22,360 --> 00:29:28,340 The family need food and the dwelling place. Which would bring into contact with other people. 247 00:29:28,340 --> 00:29:32,810 The household grows into a tribe and the tribe into a nation. 248 00:29:32,810 --> 00:29:38,510 Well, it's natural for men is what preserves the species Shastri, as opposed to the French moralists. 249 00:29:38,510 --> 00:29:47,730 And if theorists such as the Russian hukou who've ascribed most to all of human behaviour to self love. 250 00:29:47,730 --> 00:29:56,970 Human sociability is linked to chess records, the moral sense when we reflect or conduct, we know will have acted well or badly. 251 00:29:56,970 --> 00:30:04,560 We do not need God's commandments to tell us what is right, and we do not need the fear of God to make us do it. 252 00:30:04,560 --> 00:30:13,320 A moral sense cooperates, though, natural infections to guide us and pleasurable coexistence with our fellow humans. 253 00:30:13,320 --> 00:30:24,990 These ideas and the easily relaxed, albeit long winded style it would sharply express them, had a robust vogue throughout Europe motor skill class, 254 00:30:24,990 --> 00:30:28,710 chiefly amongst the four greatest poets, 255 00:30:28,710 --> 00:30:38,440 the others being Peter Mountain and Brush did through two Swedish factories and virtually made it into French with his own commentary. 256 00:30:38,440 --> 00:30:49,360 And it is article Genie in the article. He called Shastri a genius of the First Order, the Great German Enlightenment in New Zealand in 1758. 257 00:30:49,360 --> 00:30:54,910 Cole Shastri, the wittiest and subtlest of all modern writers. 258 00:30:54,910 --> 00:31:03,130 In particular, Shakespeare's ideas were developed by the Scottish School of Moral Philosophers, including Francis Hutchinson, 259 00:31:03,130 --> 00:31:11,380 who was actually an Irishman, and Adam Smith, whose view of sympathy, which meant something different by it. 260 00:31:11,380 --> 00:31:21,820 Hutchinson. Hutchinson interpreted to mean benevolent adversaries, dissented from his teachers approval system and in the theory of moral sentiments, 261 00:31:21,820 --> 00:31:24,700 substituting the term sympathy, 262 00:31:24,700 --> 00:31:32,890 Smith's understanding of human nature wasn't part based live reading of novels while in Oxford and seven in the seventeen forties. 263 00:31:32,890 --> 00:31:42,730 He's a scholarship burial. Found his lecturers were still teaching and outdated as materialism for which he could derive no benefit. 264 00:31:42,730 --> 00:31:55,470 And so he avoided lectures and spent much of his time reading French English novels by Beliveau Richardson and others. 265 00:31:55,470 --> 00:32:03,760 Sympathy is not only a key term in the theory of moral sentiments. But it also underlies the wealth of nations. 266 00:32:03,760 --> 00:32:12,280 That is not as most people think you haven't read it. A defence of selfishness and unrestrained capitalism. 267 00:32:12,280 --> 00:32:17,440 It argues an economic life depends on the basic human instinct for exchange with others. 268 00:32:17,440 --> 00:32:26,020 Well, Smith calls a propensity to truck barter and exchange one thing for another, which is distinctively human. 269 00:32:26,020 --> 00:32:33,370 That to be human is to be social. On this basis, of course, people pursue their own interests. 270 00:32:33,370 --> 00:32:42,840 Smith writes contract contrary to Hutchison, it is not from the benevolence or the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect for a dinner from. 271 00:32:42,840 --> 00:32:45,390 They regard their own interest. 272 00:32:45,390 --> 00:32:55,980 But the invisible hand ensures the society forms an equilibrium in which the good of the individual that a society can be reconciled. 273 00:32:55,980 --> 00:33:03,670 Sympathy also reshapes this literature. Lessing, who was named one of Hutchison's works into German. 274 00:33:03,670 --> 00:33:08,530 Developed a theory of tragedy, which turns on sympathy, compassion and pity. 275 00:33:08,530 --> 00:33:17,770 He writes, The most compassionate person is the best person, the most capable of all the social virtues of every kind of bad liberty. 276 00:33:17,770 --> 00:33:23,170 So whoever makes us more compassionate makes us better and more virtuous, unquote. 277 00:33:23,170 --> 00:33:33,780 The great novels of mid to late 18th century Lucius and Clarissa Rousseau La Nouvelle Elusive Good Virtue evoked immensely emotional reactions. 278 00:33:33,780 --> 00:33:40,180 The people were drawn in too intense sympathy with the feet of the protagonists. 279 00:33:40,180 --> 00:33:45,770 A reader of Clarissa Busy Bradshaw wrote to Richardson in 1749. 280 00:33:45,770 --> 00:33:51,890 I very believe I really believe I shed a pint of tears with a little agony is what I lay down. 281 00:33:51,890 --> 00:33:56,900 The book takes up again. Walk about the room that fall a flood of tears. 282 00:33:56,900 --> 00:34:02,330 Wipe my eyes read again. Perhaps not three lines through the book Crying out. 283 00:34:02,330 --> 00:34:09,530 Excuse me, good, Mr Richardson. I can't go on. And this wasn't just emotional self-indulgence. 284 00:34:09,530 --> 00:34:12,620 Lynn Hunt, in her book Inventing Human Rights, 285 00:34:12,620 --> 00:34:20,640 has argued the sympathy for others developed by novel reading led to an empathetic understanding of other people. 286 00:34:20,640 --> 00:34:31,510 And concern for their well-being. The language of sentiment was applied to plead for the humane treatment of children, criminals and animals. 287 00:34:31,510 --> 00:34:37,360 In Austria, judicial torture was abolished by decree of 1776 after a campaign by the 288 00:34:37,360 --> 00:34:42,460 enlightened Legislature using the firm's own filth and the coddling tradition. 289 00:34:42,460 --> 00:34:47,200 His impassioned plea delivered kneeling beside his seat. 290 00:34:47,200 --> 00:34:52,880 Ruth Maria Teresa with tears and persuaded her to abolish torture. 291 00:34:52,880 --> 00:34:58,400 Sentimental fiction supported the already widespread condemnation of colonialism, 292 00:34:58,400 --> 00:35:05,590 especially British rule in India, which which the enlightens condemn pretty well with a single voice. 293 00:35:05,590 --> 00:35:11,640 It urged consideration of all fellow humans, irrespective of class and race. 294 00:35:11,640 --> 00:35:18,180 It also comes to animals. This was a time when cruel sports was still very common, 295 00:35:18,180 --> 00:35:28,230 such as brutal beating cockfighting and cock throwing in which a cop was tied to a post as a stick through that until it died. 296 00:35:28,230 --> 00:35:33,240 The English were notorious for the cruelty to animals. Russo comments on this. 297 00:35:33,240 --> 00:35:40,110 But on the commission to wantonly cruel and abuse was a much enjoyed such as Fox tossing it, 298 00:35:40,110 --> 00:35:45,170 which Fox would throw as high as possible in a blanket until it died. 299 00:35:45,170 --> 00:35:54,200 The priest, Joe Joe Millionaire, who on his death left a testament denouncing Christianity as absurd reports with horror, 300 00:35:54,200 --> 00:36:02,360 how peasants in his parish attach life cuts to the top of an upright pool and light a fire at his base quote 301 00:36:02,360 --> 00:36:08,450 to have the pleasure of seeing the violent movements and hearing the frightful cries that these poor, 302 00:36:08,450 --> 00:36:14,450 unfortunate beasts are forced to make because savagery of the tortures so senseless. 303 00:36:14,450 --> 00:36:19,820 Robert, doubtless Great Cafe Massacre was not such an unusual event. 304 00:36:19,820 --> 00:36:30,530 I do want to quote own drawing to a close. A little known witness to the power of sympathy and also spokesman for communication between cultures. 305 00:36:30,530 --> 00:36:42,190 John Oswald, the son of the Edinburgh journalist, was also the poet, journalist, soldier and revolutionary atheist and vegetarian. 306 00:36:42,190 --> 00:36:49,150 He moved to Paris in 1790, edited the monthly journal, spoke in the Jacobean club, 307 00:36:49,150 --> 00:36:54,450 as well as an honorary French citizen and the commander in the Revolutionary Army. 308 00:36:54,450 --> 00:37:04,200 He was killed in the battle of 11d in September 1793. Before that, he spent two years as an officer in India. 309 00:37:04,200 --> 00:37:07,830 They're probably unlike most British soldiers. 310 00:37:07,830 --> 00:37:17,130 He talked with Hindus and acquired great respect for the religion, especially for humanity and fellow feeling towards animals. 311 00:37:17,130 --> 00:37:25,030 It is the cry of nature or an appeal to mercy and to justice on behalf of the persecuted animals. 312 00:37:25,030 --> 00:37:33,000 1791 also says he practises a system of life that is more the result of settlement than a reason. 313 00:37:33,000 --> 00:37:42,420 The one practised by the Hindus who believe in reincarnation and animated by natural feelings protects animals within Europe. 314 00:37:42,420 --> 00:37:48,270 Quote our colours in sensibility foreign to the native texture of the heart. 315 00:37:48,270 --> 00:37:54,430 This exercise for oppression over inferior but fellow creatures. 316 00:37:54,430 --> 00:38:03,460 Besides sentiment, he says the reasons are things humanity was intended to be vegetarian hunting meat, we will salvage the diet with beaches, 317 00:38:03,460 --> 00:38:14,080 unhealthy quote animal food overpowers the faculty's, the stomach clogs the functions of the soul and renders the animal material growth end quote. 318 00:38:14,080 --> 00:38:19,450 But also main argument for vegetarianism comes the language of sentiment of the heart. 319 00:38:19,450 --> 00:38:28,750 The language developed over the previous century. Now, my first question is why? 320 00:38:28,750 --> 00:38:33,740 Why, right? Well, the Enlightenment at all at the present time. 321 00:38:33,740 --> 00:38:42,730 I sympathise very much with the message of the recent book by Anthony Peden entitled The Enlightenment and Why it still matters. 322 00:38:42,730 --> 00:38:52,600 But I need to express some doubts. I was appealing to the Enlightenment as it were wholesale, as an antidote for our present discontents. 323 00:38:52,600 --> 00:38:58,940 The Enlightenment is not a homogeneous movement, but a complex set of arguments and debates, 324 00:38:58,940 --> 00:39:04,460 difficult to get into focus and impossible to treat as a package. 325 00:39:04,460 --> 00:39:14,360 If you talk about enlightenment values, we have to be selective. For example, we probably would find an Enlightenment much support for feminism, 326 00:39:14,360 --> 00:39:20,540 the voice of women for Mary and Judith Drake at the beginning of the century. 327 00:39:20,540 --> 00:39:22,880 To Mary Wollstonecraft, Priscilla Wakefield, 328 00:39:22,880 --> 00:39:36,090 and Allow learnt to gush as his end till be drowned by unsympathetic misery like those that did rule Rousseau, especially Rousseau and Adam Smith. 329 00:39:36,090 --> 00:39:43,800 Amongst the Enlightenment values I prefer were those I've talked about practical improvement, impetus and sympathy. 330 00:39:43,800 --> 00:39:51,910 We'll certainly have to add human rights as another very necessary for the present is cosmopolitanism. 331 00:39:51,910 --> 00:40:01,820 Enlighten felt themselves linked to kindred spirits, other countries, including the Chinese, who often imagined as already enlightened. 332 00:40:01,820 --> 00:40:11,230 Life frozen 60 97. I'm indifferent to that, which constitutes a German or a Frenchman, but I will only the good of all mankind. 333 00:40:11,230 --> 00:40:19,690 Do you do rule to human 1768? I said to myself that I am like you, a citizen of the great city of the world. 334 00:40:19,690 --> 00:40:30,850 It's recently been said that a citizen of the world is a citizen of nowhere, but in violent comic novel history of the abda rights. 335 00:40:30,850 --> 00:40:37,870 The citizens of Abdala, those ancient Greek city famous for being inhabited by stupid people like Gotham of England, 336 00:40:37,870 --> 00:40:45,190 the citizens of Abdellah denounced the philosopher Democritus as a cosmopolitan cosmopolitan. 337 00:40:45,190 --> 00:40:52,240 But the narrator calls about Velt Berger, a world citizen who still considered also with his native land. 338 00:40:52,240 --> 00:40:59,800 This seems to me an important, valuable perspective at a time when over two decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall, 339 00:40:59,800 --> 00:41:06,140 new walls are growing up in Europe and much greater walls are promised elsewhere. 340 00:41:06,140 --> 00:41:13,920 The key message of the Enlightenment, however, is a familiar one which can be too often repeated have the courage to use your own mind. 341 00:41:13,920 --> 00:41:18,710 Separate Audi dare to do is the watchword of enlightenment. 342 00:41:18,710 --> 00:41:23,630 Count wasn't alone in using this quotation from Horace Frank of Intuitive's 343 00:41:23,630 --> 00:41:29,390 found many earlier uses and the same years can't see what is Enlightenment. 344 00:41:29,390 --> 00:41:41,780 7:54 is used as the motto of a journal, but the Swedish Enlightenment, Thomas told it, invites us not to try to import enlightenment into the present, 345 00:41:41,780 --> 00:41:48,980 but to use our critical reason to see how enlightenment values can be adapted to the needs of the present. 346 00:41:48,980 --> 00:41:53,680 The Enlightenment was not become yet another authority. 347 00:41:53,680 --> 00:42:02,590 For that reason, finally, and this is final, it's often sort of look at the problems with advisement wrestled with but couldn't resolve. 348 00:42:02,590 --> 00:42:12,840 One is the problem of the virtuous republic. Montesquieu tells us the principle of a republic is virtue. 349 00:42:12,840 --> 00:42:17,430 The few republics left to the 18th century didn't always live up to the standard, 350 00:42:17,430 --> 00:42:25,380 with the possible exception of Geneva, ideal republics had existed in the ancient world, but they were small. 351 00:42:25,380 --> 00:42:35,580 The problem was how to preserve a sense of civic virtue and a large, modern commercial society, whether it was nominally a republic or a monarchy. 352 00:42:35,580 --> 00:42:41,700 The article on republics, but also to be written by the industrious Chevalier The Joker, who, 353 00:42:41,700 --> 00:42:50,670 by the way, some 17000 articles has this to say, and I think it has more than one present application. 354 00:42:50,670 --> 00:43:00,330 It is in the nature of a republic that can have only a small territory, otherwise it can scarcely survive in a large republic. 355 00:43:00,330 --> 00:43:06,330 There are large fortunes and consequently this moderation in people's minds. 356 00:43:06,330 --> 00:43:16,560 There are properties too great replace the hands of a citizen. Interests become individualised and then first feels that he can be happy. 357 00:43:16,560 --> 00:43:24,750 Great, glorious without his country, and soon that he can only be great upon the ruins of his country. 358 00:43:24,750 --> 00:43:30,696 Thank you very much.