1 00:00:00,670 --> 00:00:08,200 Well, thank you for that very nice introduction and for inviting a Renaissance man to talk about the Enlightenment. 2 00:00:08,200 --> 00:00:17,320 I start, as you can see in 15 60 and I think the last light is from 1744, so I did my best. 3 00:00:17,320 --> 00:00:21,880 Methuselah died in the year of the flood. 4 00:00:21,880 --> 00:00:29,890 But if you follow the Septuagint, then he would have left 14 years after the flood. 5 00:00:29,890 --> 00:00:35,440 I have annotated the whole thing properly in my own work on Eusebius. 6 00:00:35,440 --> 00:00:38,350 All the ancient ancients have noticed. 7 00:00:38,350 --> 00:00:46,990 Djourou has a lot to say about it, and so often those who've used to Scali good, one of Europe's finest humanists, 8 00:00:46,990 --> 00:00:56,050 is struggling with the Old Testament, looking for help in the works of the ancients and then trying to make up his mind. 9 00:00:56,050 --> 00:01:01,750 Scalia devoted much of his life to set out once and for all the historical 10 00:01:01,750 --> 00:01:07,930 chronology of mankind from its very beginning God's creation to the present. 11 00:01:07,930 --> 00:01:19,300 Let's see 519 for the beginning. The Book of Genesis gave many dates and details that was helpful, and it was perplexing. 12 00:01:19,300 --> 00:01:24,490 Take the famous case of mankind's longest living person. 13 00:01:24,490 --> 00:01:29,950 Methuselah is confusing because we don't pronounce it exactly the other way. 14 00:01:29,950 --> 00:01:43,870 As verses 25 to 28 of the fifth chapter of the Book of Genesis tells us, Methuselah only really starts life at the age of hundred eighty seven. 15 00:01:43,870 --> 00:01:49,420 At that point, he becomes father of his son, Lami. 16 00:01:49,420 --> 00:02:00,250 Genesis goes on to explain that from that moment on, Methuselah continues to have an active indeed very rich sex life for many, many years to follow. 17 00:02:00,250 --> 00:02:06,560 He dies at the magnificent age of nine hundred sixty nine years. 18 00:02:06,560 --> 00:02:16,100 This is how my Dutch version of the Old Testament, which I inherited from my Calvinist grandpa tells it today. 19 00:02:16,100 --> 00:02:20,060 But in the late 16th century, comparing different manuscripts, 20 00:02:20,060 --> 00:02:28,910 Scalia found himself in the quandary Methuselah must have died before or in the year of the flood. 21 00:02:28,910 --> 00:02:36,260 After all, only his grandson, Noah and his close family survived in the famous Ark. 22 00:02:36,260 --> 00:02:41,120 But the Septuagint Greek Old Testament complicates things. 23 00:02:41,120 --> 00:02:49,010 First, the sceptre Wiggins states that Methuselah was only a hundred and sixty seven years old when Llama was born. 24 00:02:49,010 --> 00:02:55,820 That was in the year one thousand four hundred fifty four forty five of the creation. 25 00:02:55,820 --> 00:02:59,870 He then lived for another eight hundred two years, according to the SIPTU again, 26 00:02:59,870 --> 00:03:06,440 so Methuselah still achieves his nine hundred sixty nine years and he dies in A. Mundi. 27 00:03:06,440 --> 00:03:17,690 Two thousand two hundred fifty six. If a scholarly good deed, we put all the dates in the Septuagint concerning the lives of lamas and of together. 28 00:03:17,690 --> 00:03:24,200 The flood must have fallen in on those moon, the two thousand two hundred and forty two. 29 00:03:24,200 --> 00:03:29,840 Hence, as Gallagher concluded, the Greek Old Testament contradicts itself. 30 00:03:29,840 --> 00:03:37,400 It made a serious error and Scalia had to set it right, as he did with his usual verse. 31 00:03:37,400 --> 00:03:45,140 As this table shows, Methuselah dies, died in illness, wounded two thousand two hundred and fifty six, 32 00:03:45,140 --> 00:03:52,790 and the flood occurred six years later in AMLO's, wounded two thousand two hundred and sixty two. 33 00:03:52,790 --> 00:04:00,440 For us, Scalia's struggle with the Methuselah problem is it most a nice anecdote, 34 00:04:00,440 --> 00:04:08,240 and that is how I read it for the first time in the scholarly gharana in 1995 in the University Library of Leiden, 35 00:04:08,240 --> 00:04:10,760 together with an exit of rent in Hampshire, 36 00:04:10,760 --> 00:04:19,610 Monk for Scalia to acknowledge that the Septuagint contained serious errors was, however, far more serious. 37 00:04:19,610 --> 00:04:30,710 It was indeed deeply troublesome. Scalia, the son of the famous humanist philologist Julius Caesar, Scalia de la Scala they called themselves, 38 00:04:30,710 --> 00:04:38,290 had joined to the French Protestant Huguenots in fifteen sixty two, and he had become a true Calvinist. 39 00:04:38,290 --> 00:04:47,540 Dismissing not just the Roman Catholics, but also the Lutherans, the McGinest, as he calls them an outspoken term in the EP one, 40 00:04:47,540 --> 00:04:56,270 the John C. Ignorant, a barbarous Alemania is roughly what the movement Tim Costello says. 41 00:04:56,270 --> 00:05:00,530 These these issues in 15 ninety three. 42 00:05:00,530 --> 00:05:06,980 Scalia moved to Holland, the heart of the new Federal Republic of the Dutch provinces, 43 00:05:06,980 --> 00:05:16,100 when he took up the offer to join the University of Leiden, which had opened its doors only eighteen years ago in fifteen seventy five. 44 00:05:16,100 --> 00:05:20,390 The offer was spectacular for those days and for others as well. 45 00:05:20,390 --> 00:05:27,050 Scalia was released from all formal teaching duties and he was able to negotiate an impressive salary. 46 00:05:27,050 --> 00:05:33,290 In other words, Scalia was the first senior research fellow of modern academic history. 47 00:05:33,290 --> 00:05:36,360 Laden was willing to pay such a high price because, 48 00:05:36,360 --> 00:05:46,130 as Tony Grafton has argued in a long series of erudite studies, Scalia was one of Europe's greatest court. 49 00:05:46,130 --> 00:05:52,820 Like his father, he excelled in physiology and with publications, so so these are all them. 50 00:05:52,820 --> 00:06:01,580 And the final synthesis of his work is a Google courtroom chronology full of categorisations and computations. 51 00:06:01,580 --> 00:06:11,420 He had come to dominate the field of historical chronology for Scalia, and his fellow humanist chronology was much more than a collection of dates. 52 00:06:11,420 --> 00:06:15,890 It was the very foundation of human history. It was the grasp of time. 53 00:06:15,890 --> 00:06:24,140 As such, competence in chronology was a distinct hallmark of civil and civilised life. 54 00:06:24,140 --> 00:06:34,820 Scalia was seeking to give mankind its past, not just in the sense of a set of dates, but in a sense of a proper order and coherence. 55 00:06:34,820 --> 00:06:40,880 To do so was a daunting task. Chronology not only required literacy. 56 00:06:40,880 --> 00:06:52,040 It also demanded a sophisticated control of numeracy. And that was not the greatest strength of many humanists, Scalia himself being no exception. 57 00:06:52,040 --> 00:06:58,820 It required the careful comparison, computation and coordination of a phenomenal wide range of ancient sources. 58 00:06:58,820 --> 00:07:03,740 Here we see colleagues struggling to bring the European Julian calendar, 59 00:07:03,740 --> 00:07:10,460 to which he remained faithful to gather with his sources about ancient Egyptian calendar. 60 00:07:10,460 --> 00:07:12,350 As this example indicates, 61 00:07:12,350 --> 00:07:21,530 the set the historical record of mankind scholar Bohr went well beyond the conventional Latin and Greek sources of the European renaissance. 62 00:07:21,530 --> 00:07:28,250 His aim was to cover all of world history, and so he widened his horizon to Persia and Egypt, 63 00:07:28,250 --> 00:07:33,650 to Hebrew and Arab cultures, gathering sources from wherever he could. 64 00:07:33,650 --> 00:07:34,400 In doing so, 65 00:07:34,400 --> 00:07:44,300 he acquired great respect for the achievements of Arab and Jewish scholars and opened the door for them for these cultures in the Dutch Republic. 66 00:07:44,300 --> 00:07:52,700 To do historical analogy was not just giving coherence to time to time past, but also to space. 67 00:07:52,700 --> 00:08:02,540 Scalia's key definitions illustrate. First, Scalia defines time as you can see the interval of celestial motion, 68 00:08:02,540 --> 00:08:09,750 be it lunar or solar, which tells us that astronomy is vital to historical chronology. 69 00:08:09,750 --> 00:08:19,190 Second, Scalia defines his other key concept a poker as a term of time and place in Boden's and scholarly. 70 00:08:19,190 --> 00:08:27,140 Because these questions of the temple, a jumbo don't put it chronology and geography of the two in the eyes of history. 71 00:08:27,140 --> 00:08:36,530 In Boden's and scholarly, because these questions of the temporal space of the world's geography were becoming highly complex at rapid speed, 72 00:08:36,530 --> 00:08:43,250 as the publications of reports from the discoveries of a new world gathered momentum, 73 00:08:43,250 --> 00:08:48,980 the most significant publication was the historian Matthew Rowley, Moral Diller's India's, 74 00:08:48,980 --> 00:08:57,860 written by Jose Costa, who between 15, 72 and 586 had played a leading role into Jesuit mission to Peru. 75 00:08:57,860 --> 00:09:05,360 As the title indicates, Acosta's work owes much to its famous classical predecessor to clean natural history. 76 00:09:05,360 --> 00:09:11,210 Of course, that fully recognises the influence of Pliny quoting him 47 times, 77 00:09:11,210 --> 00:09:17,030 but he is also keen to emphasise the originality of his own approach like Pliny. 78 00:09:17,030 --> 00:09:20,630 He studies the works of nature, but unlike Pliny, 79 00:09:20,630 --> 00:09:29,730 he also analyses the works and customs of man Los Hechos Ecclestone Barrister's Hombres Acosta's historia historia. 80 00:09:29,730 --> 00:09:36,860 Naturally, morale is not just relevant to the study of Historia, but also to filosofia. 81 00:09:36,860 --> 00:09:47,450 The subtle appeal to classical sources shows Acosta as a true unionist scholar, but does more than humanist erudition to it relating. 82 00:09:47,450 --> 00:09:54,740 The study of the new world to that of the classical world enables Acosta to structure his study. 83 00:09:54,740 --> 00:10:01,670 The reader is persuaded to learn about novelties and monstrosities of the new world through the comparison, 84 00:10:01,670 --> 00:10:06,440 which the much more familiar and respectable classical world. 85 00:10:06,440 --> 00:10:13,400 The comparison indicates that in terms of civilisation, the classical world is, of course, superior to America. 86 00:10:13,400 --> 00:10:21,620 But it also shows that when it comes to the study of Balinese nature and what the coastal saw as Aristotle's economics, 87 00:10:21,620 --> 00:10:26,690 the comparison is wholly justified, like the classical world. 88 00:10:26,690 --> 00:10:35,480 America is part of the history of humanity. But how and where does it fit? 89 00:10:35,480 --> 00:10:37,730 While scholarly good arrived at a study, 90 00:10:37,730 --> 00:10:45,010 Grafton put it unsettling destinations due to his discovery of chronological contradictions in biblical and classical. 91 00:10:45,010 --> 00:10:53,350 All sources of to do so more literally due to his growing recognition of blatant contradiction, 92 00:10:53,350 --> 00:10:58,300 contradictions between classical learning and his own observations, 93 00:10:58,300 --> 00:11:05,900 Imperial Acosta learns that the philosopher Aristotle was not much of a weatherman. 94 00:11:05,900 --> 00:11:14,720 Following Aristotle, Peru, as you can infer from this map, should have been part of the zone up to radar between the tropics, 95 00:11:14,720 --> 00:11:19,880 where torrid heat should burn man making life impossible. 96 00:11:19,880 --> 00:11:24,800 But as Acosta finds out in Peru, it's rather cold at the equator. 97 00:11:24,800 --> 00:11:31,160 In fact, it is bitterly cold. Acosta confesses that standing at the Peruvian Ecuador, 98 00:11:31,160 --> 00:11:42,980 he and his fellow travellers had the good laugh at Los Maty orders the Aristotle's E and the Su Filosofia. 99 00:11:42,980 --> 00:11:47,180 The critical attitude this critical attitude characterises the ways, 100 00:11:47,180 --> 00:11:56,990 the way in which Acosta deals with the question that have become central to the debate on the new world and its position in the chronology of mankind. 101 00:11:56,990 --> 00:12:06,030 Where did the Indians come from? In a sense, of course, of course, Gallagher and Acosta knew the answer, 102 00:12:06,030 --> 00:12:13,560 given the unity of mankind to American Indians must be like We all are descendants from Noah. 103 00:12:13,560 --> 00:12:18,900 But how did they find away from Mt. Ararat to America? 104 00:12:18,900 --> 00:12:27,150 Acosta started his response with the frank admission that he had not been able to find a true and certain course. 105 00:12:27,150 --> 00:12:34,110 He dismisses the possibility of a deliberate and sustained colonisation of America by loss ambiguous, 106 00:12:34,110 --> 00:12:41,310 pointing out that thanks to the compass we lost moderne, us are much better at sailing disease. 107 00:12:41,310 --> 00:12:50,820 It is, of course, possible that strong winds and not human industry brought our ancestors to America, but that doesn't solve the riddle. 108 00:12:50,820 --> 00:13:00,490 What about the animals? How had lions and tigers, wolves and foxes found away from Noah's Ark to America? 109 00:13:00,490 --> 00:13:07,050 So when did they fly? Of course, those analysis leads to what he calls on the ground. 110 00:13:07,050 --> 00:13:19,860 Continue to grow. He is, he writes. Forced to contend that the new world is not completely separated from the old world in one or two places, 111 00:13:19,860 --> 00:13:24,720 the two worlds may even be hooked to each other. 112 00:13:24,720 --> 00:13:28,080 In Acosta's hands, the fine blend of human is scholarship, 113 00:13:28,080 --> 00:13:36,390 and empirical observation leads to a new kind of conjecture all history and to a daring proposition, of course. 114 00:13:36,390 --> 00:13:46,590 In the 17th century, both Scalia's chronology and the Costos Grand Konya Tudor are taken up, both by scholars of history, cartography and geography, 115 00:13:46,590 --> 00:13:54,060 and by travellers looking for the origins of the American Indians by French Huguenots such as Theodore double-D by 116 00:13:54,060 --> 00:14:03,600 English pirates such as Walter Rally and by Dutch humanists such as Hugo Gross's brooches and his friend Daniel Haines, 117 00:14:03,600 --> 00:14:09,420 his worst colleagues to start pupils at the end of the 16th century. 118 00:14:09,420 --> 00:14:15,480 They are members of the select group of youth in this duty that scholars have gathered around him, 119 00:14:15,480 --> 00:14:22,080 a group that also included Philip through various and important historical geographer and told us at AP News. 120 00:14:22,080 --> 00:14:30,270 Holland's first Arabist, both anxious and grouches, adorned Scalia's days Augustin Purim, 121 00:14:30,270 --> 00:14:39,030 with grouches contributing to follow folios of epigrams to honour his teacher, which you see here these days. 122 00:14:39,030 --> 00:14:44,310 Grouches is mainly seen as one of the founding fathers of Modern Natural Law Theory in the development 123 00:14:44,310 --> 00:14:51,840 of the Law of Nations enterprises that are often connected with the rise of European overseas expansion. 124 00:14:51,840 --> 00:14:57,510 After all, Grouches wrote his first main study the rebels in the in this they indies, 125 00:14:57,510 --> 00:15:01,650 as he called it, we call it the Jew to pray day for some reason in 60 No. 126 00:15:01,650 --> 00:15:09,090 360, no food at the request of the Amsterdam Chamber of the brand new Dutch East India Company. 127 00:15:09,090 --> 00:15:17,100 His first bestseller, Morally Broom, from 8:44, was commissioned by the zillionth part of the company. 128 00:15:17,100 --> 00:15:23,040 So it is fair to say that Grouches was a bit of a lobbyist for the new Dutch East India company. 129 00:15:23,040 --> 00:15:28,410 Many scholars go much further and read as you would operate a morally broom and 130 00:15:28,410 --> 00:15:33,270 Grouches main attempt to set up a moral framework for the solutions of war and peace. 131 00:15:33,270 --> 00:15:45,900 The league parties as highly ideological justifications, not just of Dutch commerce and trade, but of European colonialism and imperialism in general. 132 00:15:45,900 --> 00:15:54,590 All of these works were steeped in Scalia's humanism. Like all trendy Speight humanists, Grouches opens the issue, 133 00:15:54,590 --> 00:16:00,000 operate within explication of its métodos and order known as follows the method of 134 00:16:00,000 --> 00:16:06,000 enquiry the US is concerned Grouches merely claims to follow the jurists of antiquity. 135 00:16:06,000 --> 00:16:08,160 Cicero, in particular. 136 00:16:08,160 --> 00:16:19,140 His claim to originality, concerns the order, which he defines as the secular order of teaching in terms of persuasion and education. 137 00:16:19,140 --> 00:16:25,320 The strength of Groucho's or the whole, he claims, is that like the mathematician, 138 00:16:25,320 --> 00:16:30,780 he will first set out what is true universally and as a general proposition, 139 00:16:30,780 --> 00:16:40,590 and then narrow this general generalisation, gradually adapting it to the special nature of the court case under consideration. 140 00:16:40,590 --> 00:16:49,920 That is how Grouches sets out his pro-legal manner, moving from the first the most general to the more specific ones he presents. 141 00:16:49,920 --> 00:16:55,410 Nine axiomatic rules and 13 fundamental laws of nature. 142 00:16:55,410 --> 00:17:02,730 Together, they form the foundation of the growth in theory of natural law within this approach. 143 00:17:02,730 --> 00:17:09,960 History is, as Grouches writes in the new rebellion part, she's useful in two ways. 144 00:17:09,960 --> 00:17:16,200 It supplies both illustrations and judgements fully in line with humanist conventions. 145 00:17:16,200 --> 00:17:20,460 Grouches attaches great weight to classical history, as he puts it. 146 00:17:20,460 --> 00:17:27,420 The illustrations have greater weight in proportion as they are taken from better times and better peoples. 147 00:17:27,420 --> 00:17:37,650 Thus, we have preferred ancient examples Greek and Roman grouches, hence moves freely from Greek to Roman to Hebrew history. 148 00:17:37,650 --> 00:17:44,190 So whilst contemporary problems and overseas expansion may have set the primary agenda 149 00:17:44,190 --> 00:17:49,680 for day in this and the issue of rebellion parties in terms of historical examples, 150 00:17:49,680 --> 00:17:56,730 the more recent history of Europe, Asia and America is at most of secondary importance for him. 151 00:17:56,730 --> 00:18:06,870 Grouches main interest is in historical judgements, especially, he writes, when they are in agreement with each other in this distinct sense. 152 00:18:06,870 --> 00:18:10,080 History is central to the grossen approach. 153 00:18:10,080 --> 00:18:19,920 The existence of the law of Nature, he writes, is underpinned by the agreement between historical judgements by no other means, he underlines. 154 00:18:19,920 --> 00:18:26,310 Is it possible to establish the law of nations along these lines? 155 00:18:26,310 --> 00:18:35,790 Grouches writes, with great approval about two Peruvian NGOs who compelled neighbouring peoples to stop acting against the law of Nature, 156 00:18:35,790 --> 00:18:45,660 which is fully in line with Grouches own argument that it is justified to wage war on the count of things done contrary to the law of nature. 157 00:18:45,660 --> 00:18:57,270 In this way, he observes, the Incas won for themselves and empire the most, just of all that we have read off, except in its religion. 158 00:18:57,270 --> 00:19:05,700 Grouches also addresses the customs and religion of the American Indians in the annotations to the very Tatar religion is Christianity, 159 00:19:05,700 --> 00:19:10,560 the book that is the principle expression of Grossen Irony CISM. 160 00:19:10,560 --> 00:19:21,060 As in his moral philosophy, Grouches seeks to solve religious conflicts by emphasising shared our shared foundations. 161 00:19:21,060 --> 00:19:30,420 They vary. Dantes is a ground attempt to elucidate our shared foundations in religion on the basis of rational argument. 162 00:19:30,420 --> 00:19:33,780 And as in the Jew, the belly, Apaches and the Jews replace. 163 00:19:33,780 --> 00:19:36,720 The Grouches supports rational argument, 164 00:19:36,720 --> 00:19:45,900 which says search for agreement between historical judgements again mainly derived from classical history and to an important extent, 165 00:19:45,900 --> 00:19:50,790 more stronger now, also from Jewish history at times. 166 00:19:50,790 --> 00:19:59,100 Grouches also refers to the agreement between his version of rational Christianity and the religious beliefs of American Indians. 167 00:19:59,100 --> 00:20:07,080 When Grouches argues that the history of the flood is universally accepted, he writes with a reference to Acosta. 168 00:20:07,080 --> 00:20:18,750 And many Spaniards affirm that in several parts of America, such as Cuba, Mid-tour Comma and Nicaragua is preserved the memory of the deluge. 169 00:20:18,750 --> 00:20:25,080 The saving the life of animals, especially the raven and the dogs. 170 00:20:25,080 --> 00:20:29,760 In all of this, grouches remains a rather fateful pupil of Scalia. 171 00:20:29,760 --> 00:20:32,880 For both, the unity of mankind is pivotal. 172 00:20:32,880 --> 00:20:39,840 Indeed, most of the works, be it in historical chronology, biblical commentary, religion or moral philosophy. 173 00:20:39,840 --> 00:20:49,140 Our attempts to underpin the historical, moral and religious unity of mankind to settle the Methuselah problem, 174 00:20:49,140 --> 00:20:57,960 as Scalia had done, is not just vital to the unity and the coherence of the historical chronology of mankind. 175 00:20:57,960 --> 00:21:09,030 To set out how mankind develops as unity from Adam to Noah and then beyond after the flood is an unquestionable foundation of moral philosophy, 176 00:21:09,030 --> 00:21:15,820 most notably of the kind of natural law theory that Grouches seeks to develop. 177 00:21:15,820 --> 00:21:25,390 That is why in 16 41, he gets deeply worried by new police genetic interpretations of the origins of mankind, 178 00:21:25,390 --> 00:21:34,540 as proposed by one of his Parisian acquaintances, the libertine Isaac Le Perrier Grouches leads reads La as manuscript, 179 00:21:34,540 --> 00:21:45,220 which circulates in the circle around Madame Xin before it is finally published in 16:55 under the controversial title of Prey at the Meet. 180 00:21:45,220 --> 00:21:52,840 It is in the title of the English translation of 16:50 seeks a discourse upon the 12th, 181 00:21:52,840 --> 00:22:01,420 13th and 14th verses of the fifth chapter of the Pistol of the Apostle Paul to the Romans. 182 00:22:01,420 --> 00:22:10,420 The exegesis Jesus of these verses leads lapaglia to the conclusion that there must have been man before Adam. 183 00:22:10,420 --> 00:22:17,590 He doesn't feel that this purely genetic interpretation violates the the essence of Christianity, it's important to note. 184 00:22:17,590 --> 00:22:24,340 Moreover, the poly genetic interpretation enables us to square the biblical history. 185 00:22:24,340 --> 00:22:29,290 The Biblical story of God's creation with the mystery of the origins of the 186 00:22:29,290 --> 00:22:37,180 american-indians through the phases of poly genesis LA claims that most ancient creation, 187 00:22:37,180 --> 00:22:43,120 which is set down in the first book of Genesis, is reconciled to those of Mexico. 188 00:22:43,120 --> 00:22:50,110 Not long ago, discovered by Columbus. It was, at best, a doubtful claim. 189 00:22:50,110 --> 00:22:56,380 But again, for used to doubt Mona Genesis was the question the historical and moral unity of mankind, 190 00:22:56,380 --> 00:23:01,900 which underlies both his work a moral and civil philosophy in religion. 191 00:23:01,900 --> 00:23:11,410 Moreover, LA is rather odd. Interpretations of some verses of St. Paul to the Romans came amidst an avalanche of travel 192 00:23:11,410 --> 00:23:18,580 accounts and colonial justification that raise other serious doubts about the moral. 193 00:23:18,580 --> 00:23:29,850 Indeed, the natural unity of mankind. The suggestion was much more of moral diversity. 194 00:23:29,850 --> 00:23:38,940 Much had changed in the decades between Groats use passionate defence of the use commonly come the of the freedom of the seas of modern Hebrew, 195 00:23:38,940 --> 00:23:44,040 the freedom of trade as one of the great ways to enhance human civility. 196 00:23:44,040 --> 00:23:51,720 And his reading in 16:40 one of his manuscript in terms of Dutch overseas expansion, 197 00:23:51,720 --> 00:23:58,230 llamada leave room was connected with the activities of the Dutch East India companies, 198 00:23:58,230 --> 00:24:08,940 whose focus was on trade with India, China, Japan and in the long run, especially with the islands that now make up Indonesia. 199 00:24:08,940 --> 00:24:17,100 Well, Grouches and the Dutch were more than willing to recognise and respect Chinese and Japanese civilisation, 200 00:24:17,100 --> 00:24:24,450 which also helped him to question the rightful owners of the Spanish and Portuguese claims on trading monopolies. 201 00:24:24,450 --> 00:24:29,820 The encounter with the Americas was, in this respect, much more perplexing. 202 00:24:29,820 --> 00:24:40,020 As noted, Grouches commented on the inhabitants of the Americans, both in the belly and they very talented, as these comments indicate. 203 00:24:40,020 --> 00:24:45,660 Clearly, Grouches didn't see groups such as the Incas as barbarians. 204 00:24:45,660 --> 00:24:51,960 A view he shared with many others in the Dutch Republic in Holland. 205 00:24:51,960 --> 00:25:03,840 American Indians were initially primarily seen as allies, as fellow victims of the cruelties of Spanish tyranny. 206 00:25:03,840 --> 00:25:09,510 An image that gained wide popularity thanks to the translations of the work of popular 207 00:25:09,510 --> 00:25:17,760 Middle East councils and the powerful illustrations of Theodore Debris in 16 23, 208 00:25:17,760 --> 00:25:24,840 the Dutch set up the West Indian company, the VTC, as we call it, very much as a compliment, 209 00:25:24,840 --> 00:25:30,810 but in fact also a little bit as a rival to its successful East Indian counterpart. 210 00:25:30,810 --> 00:25:41,280 The key focus of the new company was not just on the new Netherlands in North America, but also of perhaps especially on Brazil from 16 to 24. 211 00:25:41,280 --> 00:25:49,920 A series of conquests of Portuguese possessions, most famously those of Ritchie Fur and or Linda in February 16 30. 212 00:25:49,920 --> 00:26:00,420 You see, it meant that the Dutch took over an important sugar producing area of towns and plantations, an area with a highly complex, 213 00:26:00,420 --> 00:26:08,760 a modern parlance hybrid society of Indian indigenous inhabitants, Portuguese colonisers, 214 00:26:08,760 --> 00:26:13,800 their African slaves and many people who was somewhere in between. 215 00:26:13,800 --> 00:26:24,420 The fruits of a rich variety of sexual encounters, the Dutch were bewildered and fairly lost in 16 36, 216 00:26:24,420 --> 00:26:32,910 the way east to West India Company decides to appoint a successful military commander and distinguished member of the Audience National Dynasty. 217 00:26:32,910 --> 00:26:38,580 Johan Mauritz from the Association as Governor-General of Dutch Brazil. 218 00:26:38,580 --> 00:26:50,010 He you see him in the famous Mauritz house that was built for him and in rayce for another story is that he's no longer there in the moat. 219 00:26:50,010 --> 00:27:02,460 It's house. They've taken him away, whilst Johan Modise set out first and foremost to establish military and civil order in Brazil. 220 00:27:02,460 --> 00:27:11,370 His ambition was to create a new kind of colony governed in many ways by what he saw as key humanists principles. 221 00:27:11,370 --> 00:27:23,040 His engineers and architects embarked on town planning, building Mauritz stop Mauricio police very much like an ideal Dutch town on the sea. 222 00:27:23,040 --> 00:27:34,860 As you can see with classical symmetry and of course, a few canals did his scholars and artists document its natural history of Brazil? 223 00:27:34,860 --> 00:27:45,450 His paintings, Frans Post and Albert Account, created grand and pioneering visual representations in paint not just of the landscapes, 224 00:27:45,450 --> 00:27:49,380 but also of the inhabitants of Dutch Brazil. 225 00:27:49,380 --> 00:27:57,960 In 16:37 Post painted this canvas a view on into Morocco, where the Dutch plan to build one of their strongholds, 226 00:27:57,960 --> 00:28:04,740 perhaps even the capital post as the art historian ends from the boycott, has argued. 227 00:28:04,740 --> 00:28:09,000 Not only presents it with the lush and serene landscape, 228 00:28:09,000 --> 00:28:17,700 but also with the scene of everyday life in Dutch Brazil depicting two Portuguese masters with their black slaves. 229 00:28:17,700 --> 00:28:26,730 It is a rather peaceful image, offering a somewhat benign view of the master slave relationship that showed nothing of the hardship that 230 00:28:26,730 --> 00:28:33,840 characterised the life of so many slaves on the sugar plantations of Portuguese and then Dutch Brazil. 231 00:28:33,840 --> 00:28:41,940 Yet it was a strong reminded that the Dutch had taken over a slave holding society indeed right from the start. 232 00:28:41,940 --> 00:28:52,200 Johan Mauritz Co. deeply involved in the slave trade, making a number of military conquests in Africa to guarantee the supply of slaves. 233 00:28:52,200 --> 00:29:02,490 It is estimated that during the period of his tenure as governor, up to 30000 enslaved persons were forcibly transported from Africa to Dutch Brazil. 234 00:29:02,490 --> 00:29:08,310 More than 5000 of them did not survive the journey. The estimate is that between 16, 235 00:29:08,310 --> 00:29:20,470 36 and 16 16:45 Johan Mauritz and the West India Company important around imported around twenty four thousand slaves to Dutch Brazil. 236 00:29:20,470 --> 00:29:25,390 Since the very beginning of their revolt against the government of Philip to second, 237 00:29:25,390 --> 00:29:33,670 slavery was a bad noire for the Dutch from the 50s and 60s, they feared that the policies of their overlord Philip. 238 00:29:33,670 --> 00:29:41,050 The second would make it into words for 50 65 over a group of about 300 nobles of the country, 239 00:29:41,050 --> 00:29:48,250 the citizens and the inhabitants of these countries, eternal and miserable slaves of the acquisition. 240 00:29:48,250 --> 00:29:57,640 The Dutch Declaration of Independence from 581 argued at great length that the representatives of the United Provinces, the Dutch state's general, 241 00:29:57,640 --> 00:30:01,900 were forced to set aside their overlord for the protection of their countrymen, 242 00:30:01,900 --> 00:30:09,190 their wives, their children so that we shall not fall into Spanish slavery. 243 00:30:09,190 --> 00:30:13,990 The main justification of Dutch independence to treat is political education. 244 00:30:13,990 --> 00:30:23,980 Argue two years later that in the view of the Dutch Philip, the second has sold by all means to take away our ancient freedom from these countries, 245 00:30:23,980 --> 00:30:31,930 from our countries, and to bring us into a miserable slavery under the government of the Spanish bloodhounds. 246 00:30:31,930 --> 00:30:38,950 Grouches repeated many of these words in Europe, parading when in 596, 247 00:30:38,950 --> 00:30:45,250 the Dutch captured the Portuguese vessel with of slaves on board and brought it to Middleburg. 248 00:30:45,250 --> 00:30:50,630 The slaves were freed. Throughout the 16, 249 00:30:50,630 --> 00:31:00,950 this grouches followed the Dutch conquest and colonisation of Brazil with intense interest reporting on it as ambassador of Sweden in Paris, 250 00:31:00,950 --> 00:31:04,910 with some frequencies in his with some frequency in these letters to oxen, 251 00:31:04,910 --> 00:31:16,400 Stetler Grouches got his information from a group of close correspondence, such as his brother in law Nicholas fund-Raisers Better, who, for example, 252 00:31:16,400 --> 00:31:27,950 in a letter from 13 January 16 42, informs Grouches about military success in Africa that will guarantee the supply of slaves to Dutch Brazil. 253 00:31:27,950 --> 00:31:31,430 He calls them Zahedan, Blacks and Negroes. 254 00:31:31,430 --> 00:31:40,820 In the letter, encroaches on work concepts of servitude and ownership played an important role in during the 18th century. 255 00:31:40,820 --> 00:31:53,600 For example, in Scotland, his ruminations on servitude were used both to justify and to argue against slavery back in the 60s, 30s and 40s. 256 00:31:53,600 --> 00:32:01,880 What to make of slavery in general and of the slaves in Dutch Brazil in particular perplexed the Dutch. 257 00:32:01,880 --> 00:32:06,170 After his return to Europe, Johan Mauritz commissioned Caspar Barley Use, 258 00:32:06,170 --> 00:32:11,420 one of Holland's leading humanist scholars and a close friend of Grouches to write a history 259 00:32:11,420 --> 00:32:17,990 and justification of his rule over Dutch Brazil in a number of rather awkward passages. 260 00:32:17,990 --> 00:32:22,190 But Elias elucidates Dutch ambivalence on slavery, 261 00:32:22,190 --> 00:32:33,410 combining an insistence on natural freedom of man with the argument that I quote some US subjects to slavery due to a defect of that nature. 262 00:32:33,410 --> 00:32:42,380 Others because of certain laws. End of quote As butler use continues, there are some human beings whose lack of intelligence and skills, 263 00:32:42,380 --> 00:32:48,050 he writes, make it impossible for them to accomplish anything worthy of mankind. 264 00:32:48,050 --> 00:32:56,060 It is better if they lead their lives according to the will and command of others rather than their own. 265 00:32:56,060 --> 00:33:01,430 Whether this applies to the slaves in Dutch Brazil remains unclear. 266 00:33:01,430 --> 00:33:05,390 Perhaps the most powerful images of African slaves in Brazil, 267 00:33:05,390 --> 00:33:13,220 these two paintings by Albert Akoth from 16:40 one, offered little support to the idea of natural slavery. 268 00:33:13,220 --> 00:33:23,700 On the contrary, as ends and from the BOHOT has put it, they project more pride and assurance than natural submission that. 269 00:33:23,700 --> 00:33:32,070 Submissiveness, the image of the woman exemplifies the ambiguity of Dutch perception while set against 270 00:33:32,070 --> 00:33:37,560 the background of the Brazilian beach and sea with clear references to the slave trade. 271 00:33:37,560 --> 00:33:48,030 This African slave is upright and full of dignity. Her obvious affection for her child child indicates a sense of parental responsibility. 272 00:33:48,030 --> 00:33:53,160 Her strong body suggests that she is very good value for hard work. 273 00:33:53,160 --> 00:33:54,660 At the same time, 274 00:33:54,660 --> 00:34:05,440 many Dutch spectators see this as a deeply erotic painting that highlights the beauty of black human beings of black women in particular. 275 00:34:05,440 --> 00:34:10,900 All in all, what we have here are words and images full of ambivalence, 276 00:34:10,900 --> 00:34:18,130 raising questions about the moral status and civility concerning all groups of human beings living in Dutch Brazil, 277 00:34:18,130 --> 00:34:25,030 from the Dutch and Portuguese masters to their African slaves in the light of the ambivalent, 278 00:34:25,030 --> 00:34:28,810 if not confusing, reports coming from all around the world. 279 00:34:28,810 --> 00:34:37,990 Some scholars started to develop more sceptical arguments about the moral, moral unity of mankind within Gross's own Parisian circles. 280 00:34:37,990 --> 00:34:41,140 Scholars such as his good friend Pierre Cassidy, 281 00:34:41,140 --> 00:34:48,880 combined to recognition of the moral diversity across the globe with a more sceptical attitude towards the morality of mankind. 282 00:34:48,880 --> 00:34:57,820 The moral unity of mankind, as Cindy puts it, in 16 49, I quote If you examine things with the degree of attention, 283 00:34:57,820 --> 00:35:07,450 you will not fail to discover that nothing is considered unjust or shameful in one country, which is not deemed almost unjust in another. 284 00:35:07,450 --> 00:35:12,340 Nothing is rejected in one place that is not recommended in another. 285 00:35:12,340 --> 00:35:21,070 To cast away the doubts concerning the unity of mankind, cockroaches in 16:40 one writes his dissertation. 286 00:35:21,070 --> 00:35:29,590 They originate Ghent. You really come out. Scally, a star pupil, returns to his roots. 287 00:35:29,590 --> 00:35:36,790 The main aim is to settle the issue of the origins of the American Indians in terms of both chronology and geography, 288 00:35:36,790 --> 00:35:43,510 and to reaffirm to set in stone the mono genetic unified character of God's creation. 289 00:35:43,510 --> 00:35:49,420 Without much modesty, a virtue which humanist, often priest seldom practised, 290 00:35:49,420 --> 00:35:56,290 Grouches puts his work in the line of zealous strongbow and, of course, policy to the hero of the Dutch study of history. 291 00:35:56,290 --> 00:36:01,450 Following tacit rules on the origins of the Britain's Grouches will instruct us, he writes, 292 00:36:01,450 --> 00:36:12,190 partly from tradition, partly from conjecture based upon the consideration of the language, dress and customs. 293 00:36:12,190 --> 00:36:20,710 Acosta's buy now popular thesis that the Indians came from sketchier great to as Grouches calls it, 294 00:36:20,710 --> 00:36:27,340 and entered America across the street of million+ bearing streets, we call it is dismissed. 295 00:36:27,340 --> 00:36:34,360 It's all about the horses. Well, CETA is a country always full of horses. 296 00:36:34,360 --> 00:36:39,070 It is so gross tells us certain that before the arrival of the Spaniards, 297 00:36:39,070 --> 00:36:45,670 there were no horses at all in America exploring the language and manners of the Indians. 298 00:36:45,670 --> 00:36:56,350 It becomes clear that the northern Americans living north of the Isthmus of Panama, Panama, do not come from Asia, from the Ark of Noah. 299 00:36:56,350 --> 00:37:02,130 They must have reached the new world via Norway. 300 00:37:02,130 --> 00:37:06,750 They first travelled to Iceland from there to Greenland, 301 00:37:06,750 --> 00:37:14,730 then onwards to what Grouches calls a Stotland settling down in the country, which the Spaniards call Nora Maiga. 302 00:37:14,730 --> 00:37:20,670 But that's only because they are unable to use the proper Germanic pronunciation. 303 00:37:20,670 --> 00:37:24,900 Language is extremely important to grow, which is surprising conjecture. 304 00:37:24,900 --> 00:37:34,440 He points out at 55, Indian regions have names such as Chima Plum, Coopt Plum, 10:42am Marguerite Lum Apti Lum. 305 00:37:34,440 --> 00:37:45,450 In all which words he writes, the pronunciation of the Spaniard drops the last letter being from Norwegian, hence Germanic descent. 306 00:37:45,450 --> 00:37:51,000 Naturally, Indians call the regions lumped land. 307 00:37:51,000 --> 00:37:57,480 It is all a bit desperate. We are all in the autumn, so to speak. 308 00:37:57,480 --> 00:38:04,600 The late November days of Dutch humanism back in Holland, Hugo's brother, William, all still homeless. 309 00:38:04,600 --> 00:38:11,580 The lot to look at the manuscript of the desert until the last have been a fellow student in Leider. 310 00:38:11,580 --> 00:38:18,510 Like roaches, he was a pupil of Scalia. After his studies, he combines commerce and scholarship, becoming in fact, 311 00:38:18,510 --> 00:38:26,280 the director of the West Indian company and the office that allows him to indulge in the study of geography and language. 312 00:38:26,280 --> 00:38:39,570 He becomes a Mercato sapiens. His description of the New World from 16 24 is a bestseller, with editions in 16 24 16, 13, 16 43. 313 00:38:39,570 --> 00:38:49,710 The last outline of the order of his own work indicates just how much it diverges from the approach adopted by Grouches. 314 00:38:49,710 --> 00:38:53,760 The law declares that he will first describe the general natural conditions of the 315 00:38:53,760 --> 00:38:58,290 provinces of the new world before exploring the particularities of provinces, 316 00:38:58,290 --> 00:39:03,270 towns and harbours. The Dutch were very keen on the harvest. 317 00:39:03,270 --> 00:39:10,590 The narrative is enriched with many maps because you have to get into those hobbies as the land rights. 318 00:39:10,590 --> 00:39:16,770 The description of these lands cannot be fully grasped without geographical maps. 319 00:39:16,770 --> 00:39:26,220 That approach is not unique. Lots work fits into the new genre of scientific study of observation and description of unknown countries. 320 00:39:26,220 --> 00:39:35,460 The vast bibliography is full of contemporary sources, including the works of Costante, John Oliver, Richard Harcourt and John from Minnesota. 321 00:39:35,460 --> 00:39:41,460 Aristotle, Pliny and Tacitus are absent in 16 43. 322 00:39:41,460 --> 00:39:45,120 The last publishes his notes on This Starts You. 323 00:39:45,120 --> 00:39:52,890 The book starts with a systematic deconstruction of gradation conjectures Norwegian Indians. 324 00:39:52,890 --> 00:39:59,940 The law points out that the population of Norway has always been fairly modest, to put it mildly. 325 00:39:59,940 --> 00:40:04,860 It is unlikely that such a small people could have inhabited such a vast continent. 326 00:40:04,860 --> 00:40:12,000 From Northern Bago to New Mexico. After demography, the law turns to geography with a great sense of irony. 327 00:40:12,000 --> 00:40:16,200 He Democrats two geographical pitfalls in Grouches itinerary. 328 00:40:16,200 --> 00:40:21,840 I quote carefully We proceed on our journey to America, from Norway to Iceland. 329 00:40:21,840 --> 00:40:26,070 From Iceland, we proceed to Greenland via 3th lumpia. 330 00:40:26,070 --> 00:40:35,640 From Greenland, we sit scores to as Astudillo. Truly, we must say no author has urged so strongly in all of these matters. 331 00:40:35,640 --> 00:40:42,830 We should really tell and warn this honourable gentleman about how big the jump is that we have to take from 332 00:40:42,830 --> 00:40:52,440 Friesland deer or groom long to reach asto de la ville de Laat doesn't merely criticise the poor grasp of geography. 333 00:40:52,440 --> 00:41:00,300 Grouches have simply failed to study one of the new Globes, which is own publisher Blow in Amsterdam produced. 334 00:41:00,300 --> 00:41:06,870 More importantly, the loud questions Grouches method its reliance on superficial linguistic similarity. 335 00:41:06,870 --> 00:41:15,180 Let us consider writes the love that works as the equivalent of things give an important indication of their origins. 336 00:41:15,180 --> 00:41:24,960 It is well known that we can find many common words in all languages, and it is true that the people who use them do not have the same origins. 337 00:41:24,960 --> 00:41:35,730 For some reason, it is often mere coincidence. So it doesn't suffice to find similar words, either partially or completely in a variety of dialects. 338 00:41:35,730 --> 00:41:41,250 What is needed is a photo and systematic investigation of the Indian languages. 339 00:41:41,250 --> 00:41:51,390 But even then, the lot argues it is doubtful with the knowledge of languages yields significant conjectures concerning the origins of peoples. 340 00:41:51,390 --> 00:42:01,290 The lab goes on to offer a much more systematic reappraisal of the research on the origins of the American Indians after careful scrutiny. 341 00:42:01,290 --> 00:42:09,270 The Orthodox Church Calvinist, the lot endorses the interpretation of the Spanish Jesuit Jose Costa. 342 00:42:09,270 --> 00:42:18,000 More importantly, like, of course, that the law recognises that the research on the origins of the American Indians is a matter of conjecture. 343 00:42:18,000 --> 00:42:26,040 All history where knowledge is it most probable, always on certain grouches is appalled. 344 00:42:26,040 --> 00:42:35,280 He defends the accuracy of his interpretation and insist that there is no plausible alternative in the case of rejection, he writes. 345 00:42:35,280 --> 00:42:44,880 We will have to believe what Aristotle that man originates from eternity or from the Earth, as the fable from Sparta has it all from the sea. 346 00:42:44,880 --> 00:42:51,600 As Homer wants it, or that as someone has dreamt recently in France, there have been men before, 347 00:42:51,600 --> 00:43:02,550 and the warning is clear endorsing the dreams of love period and dangers Christian piety Grouches despair indicates the highest stake. 348 00:43:02,550 --> 00:43:08,190 Historical chronology, moral philosophy and theology are inseparable intertwined. 349 00:43:08,190 --> 00:43:14,100 On this point, the latter agrees. Naturally, as a faithful Calvinist and Orthodox woman, 350 00:43:14,100 --> 00:43:23,930 he regarded the story of Adam's unique and divine creation and the tale of Noah's Ark as the beginnings of the chronology of mankind. 351 00:43:23,930 --> 00:43:32,780 But the two pupils of good fundamentally disagree about how to settle the question of the origins of mankind. 352 00:43:32,780 --> 00:43:38,960 Of the depths of chronology was grouches still goes back to the fountains of antiquity. 353 00:43:38,960 --> 00:43:47,240 The last underlines the importance of new scientific forms of geographical ethnographic and linguistic observation. 354 00:43:47,240 --> 00:43:53,660 Whilst Grouches blends his reliance on rational conjectures with distrust on ancient authority, 355 00:43:53,660 --> 00:44:00,290 the lab derives his rational conjectures, mainly from the new art of describing. 356 00:44:00,290 --> 00:44:04,940 Liberia's reaction to Grouches is one of fuel with the help of his friend, 357 00:44:04,940 --> 00:44:12,230 the Danish scholar Oliver Slipperier sets about to deconstruct Grouches Norwegian fees as systematically, 358 00:44:12,230 --> 00:44:17,330 the results are the same assumed the guru loaned from 16:40 seven and the 359 00:44:17,330 --> 00:44:23,180 realisation these loomba written in 16:44 published only in sixteen sixty three. 360 00:44:23,180 --> 00:44:28,760 In these pioneering studies of the natural and cultural history of Greenland and Iceland, 361 00:44:28,760 --> 00:44:38,810 Le Perrier emphasises the conjectural nature of the research into the origins of peoples and moves toward a kind of historical scepticism. 362 00:44:38,810 --> 00:44:45,860 The quest for origins is, he writes, then you tell scholarly pu savoir. 363 00:44:45,860 --> 00:44:51,350 Indeed, for the research on origins, Stoup sought, these throughout is insufficient. 364 00:44:51,350 --> 00:44:55,970 All one can say is mainly based on conjecture, he writes. 365 00:44:55,970 --> 00:45:03,290 And those conjectures are uncertain, especially when, as in the case of grouches, they are based on linguistic similarity. 366 00:45:03,290 --> 00:45:11,930 You, Marian, to see Pompeii need them. One solid could the Konark to form the of some blubber, some blabla. 367 00:45:11,930 --> 00:45:19,460 Etymology La Perrier strategy strategy is to cast doubt on historical chronological chronology, 368 00:45:19,460 --> 00:45:23,480 on conjectural history and, by implication, mono genesis. 369 00:45:23,480 --> 00:45:30,230 In doing so, the purely genetic interpretation of creation at least becomes plausible. 370 00:45:30,230 --> 00:45:33,890 The unity of mankind is put into doubt. 371 00:45:33,890 --> 00:45:43,280 Perhaps the last grant attempt to save the unity of human chronology comes again from Leiden in Aachen, Norway. 372 00:45:43,280 --> 00:45:49,130 Published in 16 66, Georg Cornelius moves well beyond scholarly good. 373 00:45:49,130 --> 00:45:57,230 Of course, grouches and dell'arte. Recognising the plurality of historical and cultural developments, 374 00:45:57,230 --> 00:46:04,400 Horniness seeks to integrate them into a comprehensive and systematic universal history. 375 00:46:04,400 --> 00:46:14,120 It is a daring move. History explicitly presented by horror news as the narrative of the things that have happened. 376 00:46:14,120 --> 00:46:21,620 Rear room guestroom Narod SEAL is divided seductively along quasi remis lines, 377 00:46:21,620 --> 00:46:28,760 first between divine and worldly history from worldly history or news moves us to philosophical history. 378 00:46:28,760 --> 00:46:40,040 Then leaving intellectual history aside down to natural history, which concerns the heavens, the air and the Earth putting us on Earth hold. 379 00:46:40,040 --> 00:46:45,140 The US wants to focus on things exterior, including geography, botany and the Bovell. 380 00:46:45,140 --> 00:46:52,760 The Graphika Zwolle graphic history is divided into anatomical, medical, sensual and ethical history. 381 00:46:52,760 --> 00:46:58,370 The latter is of extreme importance. It comprises economics and politics. 382 00:46:58,370 --> 00:47:08,390 This is where we must be. More specifically, we should study universal political history Historia Politica Universal Knowledge, 383 00:47:08,390 --> 00:47:15,170 which makes us focus on the greatest things of Imperium, be they right now or its public. 384 00:47:15,170 --> 00:47:19,620 At this level, the chronology of Mortal Man starts to make sense. 385 00:47:19,620 --> 00:47:28,880 Old news explains. In fact, for the first time, it is appropriate to use the term cronologia in his research, hold the news, 386 00:47:28,880 --> 00:47:37,490 then seeks to square the stories of all human monarchies and republics, moving deftly between Europe, India and China. 387 00:47:37,490 --> 00:47:47,600 The scope is enormous, and it is a real surprise that modern global historians have not yet discovered your core news as their pioneering hero. 388 00:47:47,600 --> 00:47:53,180 Maybe he's still too much of a Calvinist for them. We must recognise horde news. 389 00:47:53,180 --> 00:47:57,290 Insist that our mortal state startles Mundy is threefold. 390 00:47:57,290 --> 00:48:08,210 It includes antediluvian before the flood soup de Luciano and post the Louisiana the period starting with no exit from the Ark until, 391 00:48:08,210 --> 00:48:13,580 as hot news puts it, where our memory reaches of Nostra Memoriam. 392 00:48:13,580 --> 00:48:17,810 Already, the antediluvian turns out to be beset by daunting problems, 393 00:48:17,810 --> 00:48:26,240 as horniest makes abundantly clear by 666, the first 10 books of Genesis have become deeply controversial. 394 00:48:26,240 --> 00:48:31,880 There are even those he writes who read the Septuagint mode using most corrupt numbers 395 00:48:31,880 --> 00:48:37,700 to defend the interpretation that Methuselah survives the flood with 14 years. 396 00:48:37,700 --> 00:48:42,920 That is truly the most stupid error carseat simple error. 397 00:48:42,920 --> 00:48:50,570 It doesn't get much better. As Horney is acknowledged, the three sons of Noah have been sent to all kinds of geographical directions 398 00:48:50,570 --> 00:48:56,810 to geographical precision of these directions being far from clear by 666. 399 00:48:56,810 --> 00:49:02,990 Concepts such as Africa, Asia and Europe have become deeply contested. 400 00:49:02,990 --> 00:49:10,010 The ambition of other to come the way is to restore unity in the universal political history of mankind. 401 00:49:10,010 --> 00:49:14,540 The result is a supreme work of historical breath and erudition. 402 00:49:14,540 --> 00:49:21,260 It is conjectural history at its best. It is also a grand and wonderful failure. 403 00:49:21,260 --> 00:49:30,140 Holding news literally goes mad. He ends his life running naked through the streets of Leiden. 404 00:49:30,140 --> 00:49:36,980 These days, that is normal. But it wasn't the 16 66 between scholarly good and hard news. 405 00:49:36,980 --> 00:49:41,960 Historical chronology unravels and with it, the unity of mankind. 406 00:49:41,960 --> 00:49:48,650 As Horton Hughes argues, chronologies not defined. It is a mere matter of human narrative and memory. 407 00:49:48,650 --> 00:49:56,570 After holding news, European scholars move from the unitary conception of biblical time with its clear beginning and its certain end 408 00:49:56,570 --> 00:50:03,620 to the recognition of the complex and deeply uncertain plurality of historical developments across the globe. 409 00:50:03,620 --> 00:50:11,900 This slow move from biblical to historical time, from mankind's unity to the historicity of human beings, marks, 410 00:50:11,900 --> 00:50:19,760 I feel the autumn of Renaissance humanism and perhaps the beginning of the Enlightenment progress development. 411 00:50:19,760 --> 00:50:25,850 The four stages of the history of civilisation become the cuts which of a new age being enlightened. 412 00:50:25,850 --> 00:50:33,110 We will all move forward that we may no longer know where we will end if we end at all. 413 00:50:33,110 --> 00:50:36,800 We are on the multiple roads towards modernity, as it is called these days, 414 00:50:36,800 --> 00:50:43,970 and we share the renaissance sense of human unity and destiny that has come as a price at the price. 415 00:50:43,970 --> 00:50:53,870 As we now know, the new theories of human plurality and modal diversity of poly, genesis of racial variety of lower and higher races developed, 416 00:50:53,870 --> 00:51:01,940 for example in Göttingen, were used to underpin in Europe's darkest decades the politics of slavery and not so long ago. 417 00:51:01,940 --> 00:51:06,890 Alas, also from getting in. Genocide. 418 00:51:06,890 --> 00:51:17,270 In 16, 71 are no loose Montana's a Calvinist vicar working in the little town of St. Hoven publishes a bestseller, 419 00:51:17,270 --> 00:51:22,700 The Unknown New World Order, a description of the Continent of America. 420 00:51:22,700 --> 00:51:29,630 As the title page indicates, this is a work that wants to amuse and inform amuse above all. 421 00:51:29,630 --> 00:51:38,870 The primary aim is no longer to look for unity and to explore similarities between America and antiquity or between America and Europe around world. 422 00:51:38,870 --> 00:51:49,640 The purpose is to tell thrilling stories about as Montano's never stops emphasising the unknown world so full of mysteries, 423 00:51:49,640 --> 00:51:52,970 monstrosities and magical moments. 424 00:51:52,970 --> 00:52:03,300 The story of how the Americans, as Montanez calls them, came to the New World is one of the four pillars of the book. 425 00:52:03,300 --> 00:52:12,160 They called the new speaker sites with Acosta, with her news and the lot grouches argument that linguistic similarities indicate the 426 00:52:12,160 --> 00:52:17,860 Norwegian origins of the Americans is not only deconstructed with new linguistic research, 427 00:52:17,860 --> 00:52:26,830 but also with visual observation of the animal world. A key example is the EL-AHMAR following grouches. 428 00:52:26,830 --> 00:52:38,470 We would expect to see a lamp with a lump in Dutch El-Ahmar lamp, but visual evidence shows us that this is obviously not the case. 429 00:52:38,470 --> 00:52:42,970 The learnt crowds use, Montano's concludes, was clearly wrong. 430 00:52:42,970 --> 00:52:48,340 Whether Acosta, horn, use and the lot are absolutely right is luckily still uncertain. 431 00:52:48,340 --> 00:52:53,440 It keeps up the tension and he does it throughout his book, The History of America. 432 00:52:53,440 --> 00:53:00,790 He tells us it's an exciting mystery full of more and less probable conjectures throughout the Enlightenment. 433 00:53:00,790 --> 00:53:06,430 The quest for the origins of the American Indians continues, and so does the debate on its proper method. 434 00:53:06,430 --> 00:53:13,000 In 1787, Thomas Jefferson confronts the issue in the notes on the state of Virginia with great caution. 435 00:53:13,000 --> 00:53:18,310 He argues that the resemblance between the Indians of America and the eastern inhabitants 436 00:53:18,310 --> 00:53:25,520 of Asia would induce us to conjecture that the former are the descendants of the latter. 437 00:53:25,520 --> 00:53:33,680 He immediately acknowledges the uncertainty of this conjecture and Grouches and argues that given the durability of language, 438 00:53:33,680 --> 00:53:43,520 more extensive research into the language of the Indians might yield the most certain evidence of their derivation. 439 00:53:43,520 --> 00:53:55,880 So the mystery remains. But luckily, in the heart of the German Enlightenment, there is Konrad Samuel Schultz Flights, 440 00:53:55,880 --> 00:54:03,770 a world-famous professor from Vitamina in 1740 forward in his glorious work. 441 00:54:03,770 --> 00:54:10,220 The short slice ciano short slice poorly is thought. 442 00:54:10,220 --> 00:54:19,520 All in Zuma, as we see on this title page, summarises the entire debate on the origins of the American Indians in less than two pages. 443 00:54:19,520 --> 00:54:27,290 It is true, he concludes, that men emigrated from Asia across the Strait of Hormuz amongst themselves. 444 00:54:27,290 --> 00:54:34,480 The erudite still discussed the question of how the cattle and the animals have managed to make the crossing. 445 00:54:34,480 --> 00:54:39,850 So Grouches was wrong. It's flash fuel, sorry. 446 00:54:39,850 --> 00:54:49,270 He admires the Dutch humanist. He writes Hugo Grouches when he got the book in his hands, he read it copy to love him. 447 00:54:49,270 --> 00:54:55,390 Put to summary upfront and immediately he could remember Uno into it to what he had read. 448 00:54:55,390 --> 00:54:56,380 That is true. 449 00:54:56,380 --> 00:55:07,780 Scholarship in Ghana in 1740 1744 as short flourish tells us cockroaches died on the Baltic coast in the town of Rostock on the 18th of August, 450 00:55:07,780 --> 00:55:13,720 16:45 fired away from his beloved party. 451 00:55:13,720 --> 00:55:20,950 It was a tragic death, he admits. But the police restored from with them better is able to console us. 452 00:55:20,950 --> 00:55:26,650 He dies as a good looter. The autumn of humanism was long and colourful. 453 00:55:26,650 --> 00:55:34,336 A thank you for your attention.