1
00:00:04,220 --> 00:00:09,930
Okay. Nice to see you all again. Have you had a good week today?

2
00:00:09,930 --> 00:00:13,380
We're going to leave logic an argument that or ugly?

3
00:00:13,380 --> 00:00:19,110
Not actually, because you can't you can't get away with logic and arguments in philosophy.

4
00:00:19,110 --> 00:00:28,970
I'm going to talk about ethics and politics. So you might not it won't sound quite as foreign to you today, perhaps.

5
00:00:28,970 --> 00:00:38,400
OK. I mean, it took us three ethical theories. I mean, obviously, I've chosen to leave because I could have talked about a number of things,

6
00:00:38,400 --> 00:00:43,570
but these three are probably the three most popular theories.

7
00:00:43,570 --> 00:00:48,280
Firstly, Aristotle and his work has become virtue ethics.

8
00:00:48,280 --> 00:00:54,700
Now, then I get to talk about Kant and then I'm going to talk about utilitarianism and all.

9
00:00:54,700 --> 00:00:57,150
Compare and contrast them to each other.

10
00:00:57,150 --> 00:01:05,580
But I think by the end of today, you'll at least have a feel for some of the key issues of each of these theories.

11
00:01:05,580 --> 00:01:14,220
Okay. So we're going to start with Aristotle. Now, tell me actually, because it all ties to what what is it that we're trying to answer?

12
00:01:14,220 --> 00:01:23,850
Well, in ethics, when we're trying to do ethics, what do you think the question is that we're concerned with?

13
00:01:23,850 --> 00:01:29,030
That's not a question. I mean, yes, we're concerned, right or wrong, but what is the question to which.

14
00:01:29,030 --> 00:01:32,990
Well, it's it's morally right. Right.

15
00:01:32,990 --> 00:01:45,270
Okay. What question might be is it right to do whatever, to lie, to kill or whatever that might be with us?

16
00:01:45,270 --> 00:01:51,940
Good. That's right. There are two sorts of ethical question.

17
00:01:51,940 --> 00:01:58,050
How can you call me in my office? Sorry, I got the question of their answer.

18
00:01:58,050 --> 00:02:06,750
Got it. Okay. The first answer was the question we're looking to answer is, is doing this right or wrong?

19
00:02:06,750 --> 00:02:15,480
And the second also was the principles behind what are the principles behind decisions about what to what the council said.

20
00:02:15,480 --> 00:02:22,590
OK. And between the two of you, you've come up with absolutely the distinction that I want to come up with.

21
00:02:22,590 --> 00:02:29,370
Thank you very much. The distinction between first order ethics and second-order ethics.

22
00:02:29,370 --> 00:02:39,290
Now first order ethics looks at the world. It looks at certain action types, lying, killing, clothing, whatever.

23
00:02:39,290 --> 00:02:43,920
And it says it's an action of this type, morally acceptable. OK.

24
00:02:43,920 --> 00:02:48,350
That's a first sort of question because it pertains to the world, if you like,

25
00:02:48,350 --> 00:02:56,420
that there are second thoughts and moral questions which ask what is it that makes an action, right or wrong?

26
00:02:56,420 --> 00:02:59,340
Do you think that we've got one back, if you like?

27
00:02:59,340 --> 00:03:06,180
So just in the same way, if I talk about first order beliefs, I'm talking about beliefs about the world.

28
00:03:06,180 --> 00:03:11,190
So my belief that she has blue is a first order belief.

29
00:03:11,190 --> 00:03:16,950
But if I don't think it's my belief that that chair's blew through.

30
00:03:16,950 --> 00:03:21,760
That's a second order brief because it's a belief about belief.

31
00:03:21,760 --> 00:03:25,170
Got it. So you can have second order desires as well.

32
00:03:25,170 --> 00:03:29,400
Does someone want to give me a first order? What's a first order?

33
00:03:29,400 --> 00:03:34,410
Desire. All I have I want her.

34
00:03:34,410 --> 00:03:39,870
I want a cream cake or I'll eat something to eat or whatever and some other second order.

35
00:03:39,870 --> 00:03:43,710
Desire is a bit more difficult times with desires.

36
00:03:43,710 --> 00:03:49,600
I realise now start to finish. Can anyone think of the second order dessert.

37
00:03:49,600 --> 00:03:53,100
I'm very near.

38
00:03:53,100 --> 00:03:58,860
Yeah. Absolutely. You might think, OK, I want to cream cake but I want to be slim.

39
00:03:58,860 --> 00:04:08,160
Both of those first order desires. But then you might think I want to be the sort of person who wants a salad rather than a cream cake or I

40
00:04:08,160 --> 00:04:14,550
want to be the sort of person who wants my health more than I want a cigarette or something like that.

41
00:04:14,550 --> 00:04:22,230
So you should be noticing instantly that the philosophy works in the second order.

42
00:04:22,230 --> 00:04:26,700
So is that belief true? Is it is a very philosophical question.

43
00:04:26,700 --> 00:04:32,580
What does. What is truth? What constitutes truth? What constitutes rightness?

44
00:04:32,580 --> 00:04:37,480
So, OK, we can say whether clothing's right or killings right or keeping promises is right.

45
00:04:37,480 --> 00:04:42,840
But as a philosopher, what we're interested in is what is it? There's something to be right.

46
00:04:42,840 --> 00:04:47,340
What is it for an action to be right? What is it for an action to be wrong?

47
00:04:47,340 --> 00:04:59,310
Okay, we step back with it. So what we're interested in today is not so much first order ethics, but second-order ethics or metter ethics.

48
00:04:59,310 --> 00:05:05,850
It's sometimes called we're interested, not so much in judgements about particular types of action.

49
00:05:05,850 --> 00:05:13,470
We're interested in judgements about that sort of judgement, what it is that makes something right now.

50
00:05:13,470 --> 00:05:21,210
Very importantly, you can only test your second order ethical theories against your first order.

51
00:05:21,210 --> 00:05:28,890
Ethical. So if an ethical theory says, well, what it is for an action to be right is this,

52
00:05:28,890 --> 00:05:34,680
it would be perfectly reasonable to say, well, there's one problem with that and it comes out.

53
00:05:34,680 --> 00:05:39,870
And the problem is that it comes out of saying that it's fine to kill people.

54
00:05:39,870 --> 00:05:45,090
Now, that's because it clashes with the first-order ethics.

55
00:05:45,090 --> 00:05:49,530
You think there's probably something wrong with your second daughter? Ethics. Do you see what I mean?

56
00:05:49,530 --> 00:05:57,000
You test the two against each other. I've seen everything theory and practise interact with each other.

57
00:05:57,000 --> 00:06:05,910
So to link this to last week when we were when I was doing logic, I said to quite a few times, you are all rational animals.

58
00:06:05,910 --> 00:06:10,290
You all make logical decisions, logical judgements the whole time,

59
00:06:10,290 --> 00:06:17,580
because whenever you decide where development is good or bad, you're making a logical decision.

60
00:06:17,580 --> 00:06:20,950
The difference between us is that I know what I'm doing when I do.

61
00:06:20,950 --> 00:06:25,030
That's where you. Do it just from instinct, from intuition.

62
00:06:25,030 --> 00:06:33,310
But what's a logician does is identify what you do when you reason and then formulate a theory on that.

63
00:06:33,310 --> 00:06:41,470
But of course, if that theory came out telling you to do something that you think is blindingly obviously wrong, all of you do.

64
00:06:41,470 --> 00:06:47,500
Then there's something wrong with the ethical theory. So theory and practise interact to trust you.

65
00:06:47,500 --> 00:06:55,660
Test your true intuitions about ethical theory against your ordinary, everyday ethical judgements.

66
00:06:55,660 --> 00:07:01,300
We're going to be doing a bit of that today. So I'll draw your attention to the fact that we're doing it when we do it.

67
00:07:01,300 --> 00:07:06,170
So you'll see what I mean when I when what I'm saying now.

68
00:07:06,170 --> 00:07:10,490
OK, so let's talk first about Aristotle.

69
00:07:10,490 --> 00:07:20,380
And I ask him, like, if you his states that says that the right action is the action that would be chosen by a virtuous person.

70
00:07:20,380 --> 00:07:27,490
You feel like saying not very useful are not a good decision making theory, this one,

71
00:07:27,490 --> 00:07:33,780
because I now got to know who is a virtuous person and ask them and make sure I understand.

72
00:07:33,780 --> 00:07:41,650
And so. But anyway, that's what Aristotle says. The right action is an action that would be chosen by the virtuous person.

73
00:07:41,650 --> 00:07:50,950
And what is a virtuous person? Well, here we are. A virtuous person knows three things, or at least has three characteristics.

74
00:07:50,950 --> 00:07:56,980
The first is he or she knows which is the right action in a situation.

75
00:07:56,980 --> 00:08:02,110
Now, this is quite important feature of Aristotelian ism.

76
00:08:02,110 --> 00:08:11,770
Aristotle believes that morality has nothing to do with rules, rules like keep promises, don't tell lies, etc.

77
00:08:11,770 --> 00:08:17,950
And let me give you an example of that. OK, I want you to imagine the situation.

78
00:08:17,950 --> 00:08:26,210
OK. Your mom comes back from the hairdresser or your wife or your husband or your daughter or whoever you like,

79
00:08:26,210 --> 00:08:32,130
comes back from the hairdresser and says, What do you think? And you think, yuck.

80
00:08:32,130 --> 00:08:39,610
OK. You've got a problem you want. What's your problem? Truth is, it's a problem, it's a word.

81
00:08:39,610 --> 00:08:44,200
Tell me what the problem is. I think you might hurt the person.

82
00:08:44,200 --> 00:08:51,880
Okay. That's one element. But that's only one side because that's not a problem.

83
00:08:51,880 --> 00:08:56,340
You might have to lie. You're not going to have to lie. You've got a choice.

84
00:08:56,340 --> 00:09:00,830
You might be wrong. You know what?

85
00:09:00,830 --> 00:09:07,370
If you think you're up, you can't be wrong about what you think. At least your mom has asked you, what do you think?

86
00:09:07,370 --> 00:09:10,550
So. OK. You got a problem here. There are two rules out there.

87
00:09:10,550 --> 00:09:16,270
Be kind. Be honest. And it looks as if in this situation you've got a conflict.

88
00:09:16,270 --> 00:09:21,100
You can't be both kind and honest. Right.

89
00:09:21,100 --> 00:09:26,740
So what do you do? OK, well, Aristotle says this is a classic example of a moral dilemma.

90
00:09:26,740 --> 00:09:30,760
You cannot use rules here because the rules run out.

91
00:09:30,760 --> 00:09:40,250
The thing about rules is that their general claims don't lie, don't kill that have to be applied in particular situations.

92
00:09:40,250 --> 00:09:46,170
And give me that in various particular situations. Second, to come into conflict, don't they?

93
00:09:46,170 --> 00:09:52,210
And so in this tug, you're thinking, my goodness, if I tell her the truth, she's going to think I'm really cruel.

94
00:09:52,210 --> 00:09:56,260
If I tell her a lie, I'm going to think I'm really awful. What do you do?

95
00:09:56,260 --> 00:10:04,900
So you've got to make a choice between these two. Does it change your mind if I say your mother's been depressed for six months?

96
00:10:04,900 --> 00:10:09,890
This is the first time you've seen a smile. Does that push you in one direction?

97
00:10:09,890 --> 00:10:15,100
Okay. I hope you thought that before.

98
00:10:15,100 --> 00:10:19,990
Oh, I see what you're doing. I'm going to be. Okay.

99
00:10:19,990 --> 00:10:21,110
Well, okay.

100
00:10:21,110 --> 00:10:33,780
I'm going to embarrass some of you now because what do you do if you're not a proper moral agent in this situation is make yourself a set of rules.

101
00:10:33,780 --> 00:10:38,040
You're going to say, oh, goodness, I can't bear this sort of moral dilemma.

102
00:10:38,040 --> 00:10:42,310
You know, I really I don't want to be cruel and I don't want to be dishonest either.

103
00:10:42,310 --> 00:10:50,710
What am I going to do? I'll just have to say, look, in this, I value truth more than I value being kind.

104
00:10:50,710 --> 00:10:54,670
So whenever this situation arises, whenever I put the dilemma of this kind.

105
00:10:54,670 --> 00:10:59,740
Fine. I'm going to be honest. Now, we all know people like that, don't we?

106
00:10:59,740 --> 00:11:02,950
Some of you may be people like that.

107
00:11:02,950 --> 00:11:09,580
And there are other people who hit that situation and they say, oh, the sorts of dilemma I'm going to make myself a little rule.

108
00:11:09,580 --> 00:11:14,590
And the rule is whenever I hit a situation of this kind. I'm going to be kind.

109
00:11:14,590 --> 00:11:21,100
I think kindness trumps honesty. And I'm going to become perhaps you you hear me okay.

110
00:11:21,100 --> 00:11:28,210
But you see that if you make that sort of we all know that sort of person, too, don't we?

111
00:11:28,210 --> 00:11:34,420
Aristotle says that you shouldn't be a person of either of those kinds because what you should do

112
00:11:34,420 --> 00:11:41,980
is maintain the value of both truth and honesty and make a decision in this particular situation.

113
00:11:41,980 --> 00:11:48,610
That doesn't necessarily have any ramifications whatsoever or any other situation.

114
00:11:48,610 --> 00:11:53,680
So you don't make a rule that says I value truth more than honesty. I mean, I must be more than truth.

115
00:11:53,680 --> 00:12:01,420
You say in this situation, given the particularities of the whole situation, I'm going to go for kindness,

116
00:12:01,420 --> 00:12:11,380
given that my mom has been depressed for so long, etc. But in another situation, pretty much the same, you'd say, I'm going to go to her honesty.

117
00:12:11,380 --> 00:12:15,760
And the point, according to our Sibley's, you don't make yourself rules.

118
00:12:15,760 --> 00:12:22,380
You just do whatever seems to you. In that situation to be the right thing to do.

119
00:12:22,380 --> 00:12:31,950
Surely there should be another.

120
00:12:31,950 --> 00:12:41,530
Yes. Well, I'm glad you wouldn't so many other people, you say that.

121
00:12:41,530 --> 00:12:48,410
What does my bum look big in there, you know? What do you think of this dress or did you like the stew I made tonight?

122
00:12:48,410 --> 00:12:58,320
Or I mean, we're constantly seeking the opinions of others on things and therefore putting them potentially into that situation of moral dilemmas.

123
00:12:58,320 --> 00:13:01,960
And anyway, the fact is, you can generalise the example I'm using.

124
00:13:01,960 --> 00:13:08,350
The example I'm using is fairly trivial. But any moral dilemma is exactly the situation.

125
00:13:08,350 --> 00:13:16,480
You talk two values to general rules, which in a particular situation come into conflict and you can't obey both.

126
00:13:16,480 --> 00:13:20,590
Of course, you get a recall launches. I'm going to be cruel to be kind.

127
00:13:20,590 --> 00:13:26,020
You're going to say or something like that. Of course, it's not really a lie. It's only a white lie.

128
00:13:26,020 --> 00:13:30,800
OK. Where did you both try to do try that before you gave your answer?

129
00:13:30,800 --> 00:13:39,520
I'm sure you did, because one of the things about being a virtuous person is that you've got to be a wise person, says Aristotle.

130
00:13:39,520 --> 00:13:48,880
He thinks that all the virtues come together. Others say that that's a wise and virtuous person, is that they do know what to do in a situation.

131
00:13:48,880 --> 00:13:54,070
Unfortunately, not in a way that they can give you a rule.

132
00:13:54,070 --> 00:13:58,560
OK. All they can do is, is what they can't do anything that they'd like to be modest with.

133
00:13:58,560 --> 00:14:04,750
Well, of course. But if you think they're virtuous, you should watch them see what they do.

134
00:14:04,750 --> 00:14:09,130
Try, try and intuitively act as they would act.

135
00:14:09,130 --> 00:14:12,850
Ask yourself how would they act in this situation, that sort of thing.

136
00:14:12,850 --> 00:14:16,450
So he knows what the right action is.

137
00:14:16,450 --> 00:14:26,890
Even though knowing what the right action is is so very difficult and there aren't any rules that you can give to anyone but to go to help them.

138
00:14:26,890 --> 00:14:31,660
The second thing about the virtuous person is that he performs the right faction.

139
00:14:31,660 --> 00:14:36,610
Well, we all know about this, don't we? You know you know what the right thing is to do.

140
00:14:36,610 --> 00:14:42,630
But do you do it? Oh, you know, they. Again, you gave in to temptation.

141
00:14:42,630 --> 00:14:46,450
Okay. You need to be malicious or something like that.

142
00:14:46,450 --> 00:14:55,050
Could be just a moment's weakness or whatever. And clearly, knowing what the right action is is not a sufficient reason for being not sufficient.

143
00:14:55,050 --> 00:14:59,530
In addition to being virtuous, you've actually got to do the right action as well.

144
00:14:59,530 --> 00:15:05,480
And Aristotle says that's the thinking about the virtuous person. Is that.

145
00:15:05,480 --> 00:15:12,300
And this is actually very important here. You can be born benevolent.

146
00:15:12,300 --> 00:15:23,920
Okay. You're you're sort of naturally benevolent person. But that doesn't mean that you're going to acquire the virtue of benevolence comparison here

147
00:15:23,920 --> 00:15:29,020
as you could be born strong with the potential to be a real athlete or something like that.

148
00:15:29,020 --> 00:15:37,630
But if you sit around eating crisps and watching television all day, this disposition is going to disappear, isn't it?

149
00:15:37,630 --> 00:15:42,910
So you were born with the potential to be strong, but you're not strong or with the potential to be athletic.

150
00:15:42,910 --> 00:15:51,520
You're not athletic. Similarly, you might be born with the potential to be virtuous, to be benevolent, say, but not be benevolent.

151
00:15:51,520 --> 00:15:56,260
And the difference is that you actually have to exercise the netherlands'.

152
00:15:56,260 --> 00:16:00,910
You have to do it. So if you're born strong, you actually have to exercise.

153
00:16:00,910 --> 00:16:07,690
You have to practise. You have to train. If you do all those things, you will become strong, properly strong.

154
00:16:07,690 --> 00:16:11,730
Similarly, it doesn't matter whether you've been born benevolent.

155
00:16:11,730 --> 00:16:17,110
So you occasionally do kind things just because it's your nature to Aristotle.

156
00:16:17,110 --> 00:16:20,860
You've actually got to do it because it is the right thing to do.

157
00:16:20,860 --> 00:16:25,570
And you've got to practise. You've got to get the habit of telling the truth.

158
00:16:25,570 --> 00:16:30,970
We all know it. The first lie is quite difficult. But the second one's a bit easier.

159
00:16:30,970 --> 00:16:37,210
And the third one. The fourth one. And the fifth one. You know, you can get the habit of being dishonest.

160
00:16:37,210 --> 00:16:42,350
You can't get the habit of not fulfilling your attentions of going swimming this afternoon.

161
00:16:42,350 --> 00:16:47,950
That reminds me, you've got to try and get the good habits to habits.

162
00:16:47,950 --> 00:16:56,020
The other way round. So you've not only got to know what the right action is, you've actually got to act on that knowledge.

163
00:16:56,020 --> 00:17:00,280
And what's more, make it a habit of acting on that knowledge.

164
00:17:00,280 --> 00:17:08,940
OK. And finally, you've got to pull the right action for the right reason.

165
00:17:08,940 --> 00:17:16,450
OK. Now, each of us is the guardian of our own morality, if you like, of our own values.

166
00:17:16,450 --> 00:17:20,650
Imagine the situation again with your mum. OK.

167
00:17:20,650 --> 00:17:24,420
Here's the situation. She said, what do you think? A new baby. You think?

168
00:17:24,420 --> 00:17:29,940
Yup. And you make a lightning decision. I'm going to be kindlier now.

169
00:17:29,940 --> 00:17:34,900
You can justify that, can't you? It's you know, it's very easy to say I've just being kind.

170
00:17:34,900 --> 00:17:45,150
You can also just files for Spain on this. But we all know that sometimes when we were honest, actually what we did was give into a moment's fight.

171
00:17:45,150 --> 00:17:48,750
Have we ever done that? Don't need to tell.

172
00:17:48,750 --> 00:17:52,710
I won't ask you to put your hands up so you couldn't.

173
00:17:52,710 --> 00:17:58,170
You can claim to be being honest. But actually, you're giving into a moment struck at this fight.

174
00:17:58,170 --> 00:18:05,940
And similarly, you can claim to be being kind. But actually, you've just failed in moral courage.

175
00:18:05,940 --> 00:18:16,650
Is that also a common situation? So it's no good just knowing what the right action is and performing the right action.

176
00:18:16,650 --> 00:18:21,920
You've got to perform the right action for the right reason.

177
00:18:21,920 --> 00:18:27,060
Okay, so one's intention is is very important to Aristotle.

178
00:18:27,060 --> 00:18:31,440
And if throughout her lifetime you do these things, I mean,

179
00:18:31,440 --> 00:18:40,860
obviously you get better as you get older and then saw an eight thousand lifetime, we do these things, you will become a virtuous person.

180
00:18:40,860 --> 00:18:52,290
And at that point, you could be looked to as someone whose actions to emulate someone's decisions, to emulate, somebody whose advice to ask and so on.

181
00:18:52,290 --> 00:18:59,520
So, for example, when the government gets together, a group of the greats in the boots to form an advisory committee or something like that,

182
00:18:59,520 --> 00:19:03,570
what the government is doing is actually acting in a very Aristotelian sense.

183
00:19:03,570 --> 00:19:10,410
They're saying, look, all you've got your your wise and virtuous. So let's put you together and ask your advice on these issues.

184
00:19:10,410 --> 00:19:15,150
Let's see what you would do or what you would tell us to do.

185
00:19:15,150 --> 00:19:26,290
And that's what we're doing, is consulting people who have a reputation, who have proven themselves in some sphere of life to two productive virtues.

186
00:19:26,290 --> 00:19:34,200
OK, that's Aristotle then. Yes, I was just going to say, Allburn, excuse me.

187
00:19:34,200 --> 00:19:49,790
You seem to agree that an unnecessary complexity with this business about having fun it to a person why is an unnecessary layer of complexity has.

188
00:19:49,790 --> 00:19:58,030
Those conditions and some people that have to be from situations made in some situations are not others.

189
00:19:58,030 --> 00:20:05,900
It's not just black or white thing. Our stuff that seeps in doesn't this is not the case with those.

190
00:20:05,900 --> 00:20:14,360
And so this disease actually presupposes that every invention there is.

191
00:20:14,360 --> 00:20:19,640
And, you know, it does matter. No, it doesn't presuppose either.

192
00:20:19,640 --> 00:20:24,620
I'll deal with that one first because it's very easy. Doesn't sit presuppose that there is a right action.

193
00:20:24,620 --> 00:20:32,000
As a matter of fact, in the situation I gave you with your mom, either of those options could be right and it would be perfectly reasonable for you to

194
00:20:32,000 --> 00:20:39,050
make either of those decisions if you were sincerely making them on your best judgement.

195
00:20:39,050 --> 00:20:46,220
So the fact is there can be many different types of cases, but that doesn't mean there isn't a wrong one.

196
00:20:46,220 --> 00:20:50,090
Do you see what I mean? I mean, there are lots of different right answers in this situation.

197
00:20:50,090 --> 00:20:53,870
Doesn't mean there isn't a wrong one. Only the first one.

198
00:20:53,870 --> 00:20:55,960
I didn't think it's a layer of complexity.

199
00:20:55,960 --> 00:21:05,600
Because if I have a moral dilemma, if I have a problem that I think is a moral one, I'll go and ask lots of different people.

200
00:21:05,600 --> 00:21:18,380
But I'm not going to ask anyone I think is either stupid or would it be more likely to give me biased advice or something like that.

201
00:21:18,380 --> 00:21:22,370
The people choose will be people I think can give me something safe.

202
00:21:22,370 --> 00:21:26,770
And of course, I'm not going to choose just one. I'm going to choose several.

203
00:21:26,770 --> 00:21:33,770
And I don't see why that shouldn't be described as looking for a virtuous person to help me out of this situation.

204
00:21:33,770 --> 00:21:39,950
Of course, the decision is eventually mine. But I think I'd be stupid not to go seeking advice.

205
00:21:39,950 --> 00:21:45,860
I would have just thought it's hard enough making that decision in some situations where it's complex.

206
00:21:45,860 --> 00:21:53,070
It's hard not knowing what's going on in action and doing it for the right reasons without having to then make decisions.

207
00:21:53,070 --> 00:21:59,200
I need to move together to make decisions about which this is virtuous in this respect and which person isn't.

208
00:21:59,200 --> 00:22:04,800
But I think you'll see it the wrong way round, because it seems to me that when I have a moral dilemma,

209
00:22:04,800 --> 00:22:13,400
what I usually mean by that is I do know what the right faction is in this situation, or I can give arguments for several different factions.

210
00:22:13,400 --> 00:22:20,730
And it might be that only one of them would be right. And that's why I would seek the opinion of somebody else whom I respected.

211
00:22:20,730 --> 00:22:32,960
Guess my stand is to think about that and why at a press conference that there's look at the reasons that you would you wouldn't consult anyone else.

212
00:22:32,960 --> 00:22:37,370
It depends. Right.

213
00:22:37,370 --> 00:22:46,850
Well, I know that that's a personal anecdote. What I would say is that what you should do is you might not consult them.

214
00:22:46,850 --> 00:22:53,030
You might say, what would so-and-so do situation? What would so-and-so do in that situation anyway?

215
00:22:53,030 --> 00:22:59,390
You didn't have to agree with our stuff. But this is his theory. I mean, I do agree there's something here.

216
00:22:59,390 --> 00:23:07,370
But I would certainly I wouldn't make a serious moral decision where I wasn't sure of the pros and cons myself without asking some other people.

217
00:23:07,370 --> 00:23:14,720
Then, of course, I'd weigh the pros and cons for myself because eventually that decision must be yours, mustn't it?

218
00:23:14,720 --> 00:23:17,660
You know, you can't get away from weighing the pros and cons,

219
00:23:17,660 --> 00:23:23,640
but you can either do it without supplies or you can take advice from people whom you respect and admire.

220
00:23:23,640 --> 00:23:29,930
OK. Any other questions that are simple change?

221
00:23:29,930 --> 00:23:37,230
What is essentially a slight. But looking.

222
00:23:37,230 --> 00:23:43,560
And what's the trivia question? What do you think, my head.

223
00:23:43,560 --> 00:23:52,730
I think it is trivial. What do you get?

224
00:23:52,730 --> 00:23:57,900
Could you ask somebody. Said construction.

225
00:23:57,900 --> 00:24:04,030
And you say to them, are you going to do that? Eventually you put it that long.

226
00:24:04,030 --> 00:24:23,500
And she said on 72 days, Daniel. Then you you said you were your.

227
00:24:23,500 --> 00:24:31,330
Well, I mean, I would suggest that you walk in with her first and maybe support her or not support her, depending on how the argument went.

228
00:24:31,330 --> 00:24:38,660
But I would also say that you should ask someone else. The key question is, why are you going to vote for X if you are someone else?

229
00:24:38,660 --> 00:24:48,580
Why are you going to vote? Why? I mean, I use the trivial question as an example, but as I said, it applies in every case of moral dilemmas.

230
00:24:48,580 --> 00:24:52,930
I mean, should we allow cyberattacks, for example?

231
00:24:52,930 --> 00:25:08,950
These are the use of a cow egg to incubated human nucleus, producing something that's 99 percent human, one percent bovine.

232
00:25:08,950 --> 00:25:12,460
I mean, should we do that? Is that morally acceptable?

233
00:25:12,460 --> 00:25:18,100
Well, you know, I could just weigh the pros and cons by myself or I could ask just one friends or.

234
00:25:18,100 --> 00:25:23,300
But I think what I would do is ask lots of people. I would set up a commission to look into it.

235
00:25:23,300 --> 00:25:27,310
Get lots of people on this commission who who are reputation being wise.

236
00:25:27,310 --> 00:25:32,170
And I'd ask them to discuss it and then weigh the pros and cons on the basis of this.

237
00:25:32,170 --> 00:25:37,680
So the question. It doesn't matter how trivial or important the question is.

238
00:25:37,680 --> 00:25:47,260
It brings up the same process, which is that you consult as many virtuous people as possible and then weigh up the situation yourself.

239
00:25:47,260 --> 00:26:07,200
Your thoughts are out there all the time.

240
00:26:07,200 --> 00:26:11,320
No, no, I wouldn't think that was the case.

241
00:26:11,320 --> 00:26:20,230
What you do become virtuous until you've been performing the right action for the right reason.

242
00:26:20,230 --> 00:26:29,140
On many occasions in the past. I mean, we can all get it wrong occasionally, but we all know that there are some people who get it wrong a lot.

243
00:26:29,140 --> 00:26:34,400
You know, they either never know what they did. Do you think he's a car crash waiting to happen?

244
00:26:34,400 --> 00:26:39,550
Listen to this one. Or they know what the right action is, but never perform it.

245
00:26:39,550 --> 00:26:45,070
You know, they're weak or malevolence or something or they do perform the right action.

246
00:26:45,070 --> 00:26:51,400
So, I mean, for example, if I'm an honest if I'm a dishonest person, my best bet is to tell the truth, isn't it?

247
00:26:51,400 --> 00:26:59,620
Most of the time, wasn't this on this person does is merely hold themselves ready to be dishonest when it's going to benefit them.

248
00:26:59,620 --> 00:27:05,140
I mean, actually, it's it's important if I want to be dishonest to get you to trust me.

249
00:27:05,140 --> 00:27:09,800
But what I'm doing is telling the truth. I know the whole truth is the right thing to do.

250
00:27:09,800 --> 00:27:14,650
I'm often telling the truth that the reason I'm doing it is to get you to trust me so I can then

251
00:27:14,650 --> 00:27:20,930
sell you that nice timeshare that I suddenly just sprung a leak the other day or whatever that is.

252
00:27:20,930 --> 00:27:29,740
And I'm doing it for the wrong reason. So it's not in a situation that you that someone is virtuous if they're virtuous as I am.

253
00:27:29,740 --> 00:27:36,040
So they have been purchased over a long period. The nice thing is you can't really be virtuous.

254
00:27:36,040 --> 00:27:40,850
Nearly all white owned. I mean, we're whales qualify qualified.

255
00:27:40,850 --> 00:27:52,820
We buy made it by now we're not. So, you know, we can all make mistakes.

256
00:27:52,820 --> 00:27:56,770
No, no, nobody's denying that. But you can make mistakes.

257
00:27:56,770 --> 00:28:03,140
But the thing is and you know, this is not a foolproof procedure because, you know, you can get the great.

258
00:28:03,140 --> 00:28:08,000
I mean, Mary Bono came out recently and said she made the wrong decision on special schools.

259
00:28:08,000 --> 00:28:14,340
I mean, she's a prime example of the sort of person the government consults when it comes to wanting a virtuous person.

260
00:28:14,340 --> 00:28:21,860
Well, she's come out and said she believes she's wrong on something. You know, that's that's entirely consistent with being virtuous person.

261
00:28:21,860 --> 00:28:27,440
But if someone did it too often, then you'd stop consulting them, wouldn't you?

262
00:28:27,440 --> 00:28:37,200
We're spending too long on ourselves. So just one quick question. Say, well, it makes some more votes.

263
00:28:37,200 --> 00:28:41,530
If he has said it suggests that something could be wrong.

264
00:28:41,530 --> 00:28:51,530
Yes. OK. So that's Aristotle. So you've got one ethical theory now, one account of what it is, what the right action is.

265
00:28:51,530 --> 00:28:57,050
The right action is once it's performed by a virtuous person or chosen by a virtuous person.

266
00:28:57,050 --> 00:29:01,490
Not very action guiding, but a good theory, I think. OK, here's another one.

267
00:29:01,490 --> 00:29:05,020
Kant believes this in action is right.

268
00:29:05,020 --> 00:29:15,800
Only if the person performing it does so out of reverence, separate the law or as he would also put it, out of a sense of duty.

269
00:29:15,800 --> 00:29:18,560
But didn't you teach here? You've got to be quite careful.

270
00:29:18,560 --> 00:29:27,800
We have a tendency to think of duty as something dry and horrible, whereas Kant doesn't think of it like that.

271
00:29:27,800 --> 00:29:36,080
Let me leave that. He said no, just Kant talks about the groundwork and the metaphysical morals, which is on your reading list.

272
00:29:36,080 --> 00:29:41,400
He talks about the only way you can tell whether someone's virtuous or not.

273
00:29:41,400 --> 00:29:50,840
He's eigth in a situation of moral dilemmas. They're prepared to act out a duty rather than inclination.

274
00:29:50,840 --> 00:29:55,880
So we always have many motives. Could doing all that almost everything we do.

275
00:29:55,880 --> 00:30:03,170
There are several different motives or reasons for doing it, reasons for not doing it, and some reasons are better than others.

276
00:30:03,170 --> 00:30:09,290
And if we act on the right reasons. So Camus is very similar to our subtle in this.

277
00:30:09,290 --> 00:30:16,790
He thinks it's intention that's important. It's acting out of reverence for the law after duty.

278
00:30:16,790 --> 00:30:24,180
So let's say we I'm having four wanted to raise those.

279
00:30:24,180 --> 00:30:28,640
Then you're coming from the other. What's your name? Alison's coming from the other.

280
00:30:28,640 --> 00:30:35,760
The bigger me sits with her young child in winter, wrapped up at least is asking for money.

281
00:30:35,760 --> 00:30:41,000
And Alison gives her pounds and I give her a pound. So we. What exactly the right actually.

282
00:30:41,000 --> 00:30:46,040
Alison gave her a pound because she thought it was the right thing to do.

283
00:30:46,040 --> 00:30:50,980
I gave her a pound because I wanted Alison to think I'm the kind of person.

284
00:30:50,980 --> 00:30:58,780
OK, have we both acted morally or have I acted morally and Alison's acted in self interest?

285
00:30:58,780 --> 00:31:04,940
What did I get? Not the wrong way around. You know what I mean? Just a little test for you.

286
00:31:04,940 --> 00:31:12,720
Make sure you're listening. Who thinks that I have acted just as morally as Alison?

287
00:31:12,720 --> 00:31:23,510
OK. Why is against your best interest? Oh, well, why are you here?

288
00:31:23,510 --> 00:31:31,250
Sorry. What's your name? Georgia. Georgia. Same as Alison did it as well because she wanted to make herself feel good.

289
00:31:31,250 --> 00:31:36,290
Is that right? Yeah. Yes. Think I did. Then you.

290
00:31:36,290 --> 00:31:44,420
You think everything is done mostly ok. It is not the reason it's subconscious.

291
00:31:44,420 --> 00:31:48,710
Okay. Doing what they can. You're in good company here, Hugh.

292
00:31:48,710 --> 00:31:51,560
David Hume, the Scottish philosopher, would say the same thing.

293
00:31:51,560 --> 00:32:00,470
That everything is performed out of self-interest, that you do absolutely nothing out of altruism.

294
00:32:00,470 --> 00:32:09,580
Pants thinks that is absolutely wrong. He thinks that if you do something out of inclination, then it's not.

295
00:32:09,580 --> 00:32:17,030
But by inclination, he means for self-interest at any level, that it's not a moral act.

296
00:32:17,030 --> 00:32:23,240
And he actually thinks that most of the actions we do and people think they're moral are

297
00:32:23,240 --> 00:32:29,050
in fact not moral because they all are done from this idea of wanting to appear good or,

298
00:32:29,050 --> 00:32:34,160
you know, you give something to charity and it gives you a nice warm glow. And you knows it's that's a nice thing.

299
00:32:34,160 --> 00:32:38,750
Well, if you do it for that reason, that it's not a moral action, says Kant,

300
00:32:38,750 --> 00:32:43,740
it's only a moral action if you perform it because you think it's the right.

301
00:32:43,740 --> 00:32:53,490
Thing to do, and the real test is, is there's an action that you really, really, really want not to perform.

302
00:32:53,490 --> 00:32:59,540
And yet your duty tells you you should perform it. So you believe it's the right thing to do.

303
00:32:59,540 --> 00:33:04,110
It's the right thing rather than what you want to do.

304
00:33:04,110 --> 00:33:11,160
You are acting morally in that particular instance, whereas if you give in to your inclination, you're not acting morally.

305
00:33:11,160 --> 00:33:17,370
So hence would disagree with you on the belief that every action is self-interested.

306
00:33:17,370 --> 00:33:21,690
He thinks most sanctions are self-interested, but not all of them.

307
00:33:21,690 --> 00:33:31,450
There are the occasional acts that is performed out of reverence for the law.

308
00:33:31,450 --> 00:33:39,530
Well, Catherine Callaway wouldn't care about that.

309
00:33:39,530 --> 00:33:53,050
Well, you've lost the suit, cared about that, not because I'm not religious, but sorry, killing them because you want to have a.

310
00:33:53,050 --> 00:34:04,090
Douglas Adams is just less than.

311
00:34:04,090 --> 00:34:12,350
I see what you because you're saying to the extent that they couldn't give you an inclination towards performing the right thing.

312
00:34:12,350 --> 00:34:16,270
OK. This is what cats would say. This will remind you of something I said last week.

313
00:34:16,270 --> 00:34:25,540
In fact, it's exactly the same. Something else and mostly. OK.

314
00:34:25,540 --> 00:34:29,590
Doing a is right. I should do a. OK.

315
00:34:29,590 --> 00:34:35,650
A German bride said the count would say that that is entailed by that.

316
00:34:35,650 --> 00:34:44,380
You don't need didn't hear anything like I want to do the right thing.

317
00:34:44,380 --> 00:34:52,090
Now, in effect, Georgia, this is this is what you will say, that there must always be a desire of that kind.

318
00:34:52,090 --> 00:34:57,460
In between this premising and this conclusion, I'm Scouts' would say, well, no,

319
00:34:57,460 --> 00:35:04,290
because actually, if you think you need to add in that you want to do the right thing,

320
00:35:04,290 --> 00:35:10,420
you were implying that there might be an occasional which you didn't want to do the right thing.

321
00:35:10,420 --> 00:35:16,120
And if that's true, you don't have the concept of rights at all.

322
00:35:16,120 --> 00:35:25,420
You don't understand what rights is. If on an occasion, you might not want to do it.

323
00:35:25,420 --> 00:35:34,480
You see how it would work. So you do the very important thing here is that this without the want.

324
00:35:34,480 --> 00:35:39,650
Here is what cancer is call a categorical imperative.

325
00:35:39,650 --> 00:35:54,040
The imperative I should do A is not contingent upon your having this desire without doing the right thing, because this desire doesn't make any sense.

326
00:35:54,040 --> 00:36:01,510
Because if you know what it is to do right. You couldn't not want to do right.

327
00:36:01,510 --> 00:36:07,230
Doesn't mean that you will always do right. Because we do quite often do things that we tend to do.

328
00:36:07,230 --> 00:36:15,580
But the fact that we believe we were wrong will be manifested in shame and guilt.

329
00:36:15,580 --> 00:36:27,460
So if you really knew what's doing right, doing wrong is you cannot want to do wrong.

330
00:36:27,460 --> 00:36:40,810
That's what counts as so. OK, so there's a very long tradition stemming from him that says you can't do any action without a self-interest behind it.

331
00:36:40,810 --> 00:36:49,150
Now, if that's so and if so, please write to the ancients believe that actually it has to be reason, not desire.

332
00:36:49,150 --> 00:36:53,890
That's storing propelling most moral actions.

333
00:36:53,890 --> 00:36:59,020
It would mean that actually none of our actions is moral. Wouldn't it?

334
00:36:59,020 --> 00:37:04,440
Because not one of them is altruistic. So can you sorry.

335
00:37:04,440 --> 00:37:12,190
Humans come up with another account of morality that's consistent with no actions being altruistic anyway.

336
00:37:12,190 --> 00:37:16,180
So that's kind. And I thought about doing it tough with reverence for the law.

337
00:37:16,180 --> 00:37:21,010
So what is this moral law? Okay, well, this actually counts.

338
00:37:21,010 --> 00:37:29,860
Skip six different accounts of the categorical imperative of which this is one.

339
00:37:29,860 --> 00:37:33,400
And I'll give you this one because I like this one best. But there are six others.

340
00:37:33,400 --> 00:37:41,290
But there's supposed to be equivalent. So it shouldn't really matter if I'm giving you one rather than six act in such a way that you treat humanity,

341
00:37:41,290 --> 00:37:52,090
whether in your own person or the person of another, always at the same time as an ends and never solely as a means.

342
00:37:52,090 --> 00:37:57,860
So what's your name? Dorothy. Lend me your pen for a second.

343
00:37:57,860 --> 00:38:01,810
Thank you. Now I use Dorothy as a means to my end.

344
00:38:01,810 --> 00:38:06,250
Then in time I wanted to tell you something.

345
00:38:06,250 --> 00:38:10,180
To show you something. I also to give my pension. Give me her pen.

346
00:38:10,180 --> 00:38:16,750
She gave it to me. So she was a means to my end of giving you an example, is that right?

347
00:38:16,750 --> 00:38:24,520
But I also at the same time you can have it. I used use then who didn't herself because she could have said no.

348
00:38:24,520 --> 00:38:33,690
She could have said I'm sorry, I'm using it or it's the only pen I've got or my I left my pen or you know, she had the choice.

349
00:38:33,690 --> 00:38:38,170
That's not true. Is it really interesting. But you can see what I mean.

350
00:38:38,170 --> 00:38:44,930
I did two things. We're always using each other means when we say pass the salt, would you carry my suitcase?

351
00:38:44,930 --> 00:38:52,300
Will you do this for me, etc. But it's what's important is that we always treat others as ends in themselves as well.

352
00:38:52,300 --> 00:38:56,110
In other words, we allow them to make their own choices.

353
00:38:56,110 --> 00:39:06,700
If I trick you into carrying my suitcase, then I'm not treating you as an engine yourself because I'm not giving you the choice I.

354
00:39:06,700 --> 00:39:12,400
So what can says is that you've always got to treat humanity as an end in themselves

355
00:39:12,400 --> 00:39:17,150
because the thing about humans and he allows that there may be other rational animals.

356
00:39:17,150 --> 00:39:21,460
But but that's just for humans. Thing about humans is they're rational.

357
00:39:21,460 --> 00:39:27,460
They make choices and they make them freely. Not all my choices are free, but some of them are.

358
00:39:27,460 --> 00:39:33,220
And the fact we can make free choices is what makes us moral animals.

359
00:39:33,220 --> 00:39:38,080
Okay. That's. That makes us moral a notice. It's not just the other people.

360
00:39:38,080 --> 00:39:43,660
We've got to treat as ends in themselves. It's also ourselves.

361
00:39:43,660 --> 00:39:52,090
Your every bit as wicked. If you treat yourself as nothing more than the means to somebody else's end,

362
00:39:52,090 --> 00:39:59,710
because that's conflicting with your integrity as an autonomous being, as somebody with free will.

363
00:39:59,710 --> 00:40:07,230
So that's the moral law. Notice since that day, that count is also pretty lousy as a decision maker.

364
00:40:07,230 --> 00:40:11,530
Okay. What's the right action? Oh, well, it's the one that the law says we should perform.

365
00:40:11,530 --> 00:40:19,090
What's the law? The one that says we should always treat others as enemies. Lousy school rules, isn't it?

366
00:40:19,090 --> 00:40:29,130
Please try. Tell us a sentence. That's every time I tried it through time.

367
00:40:29,130 --> 00:40:38,590
Does it? Fine. Fine. I'll just say, as you treat them as a means, you're also treating them as an end of it.

368
00:40:38,590 --> 00:40:43,210
So it doesn't mean it's OK. There's no duration to it.

369
00:40:43,210 --> 00:40:51,010
It's just that simultaneously you can't make up for having treated someone as a means by then treating it as an end.

370
00:40:51,010 --> 00:40:56,470
You were wrong to treat them as a means in the first place. OK.

371
00:40:56,470 --> 00:41:01,000
So that's Kant. Robert came through the philosophers here.

372
00:41:01,000 --> 00:41:04,660
OK. The next one we going to look at is utilitarianism.

373
00:41:04,660 --> 00:41:14,280
Now, utilitarianism is quite different from either Aristotle or cans because utilitarianism tells us that the right.

374
00:41:14,280 --> 00:41:25,470
They actually produces the greatest happiness and greatest number. Now, this is a consequentialist, not a doctrine based on intention or will.

375
00:41:25,470 --> 00:41:34,460
So whereas Camus believes that the only thing that's good in itself is the will, the choices, the intentions on which you act.

376
00:41:34,460 --> 00:41:39,930
The utilitarian thinks it's the consequences of your actions that matter.

377
00:41:39,930 --> 00:41:45,600
So I think let's think about the nature of an action for a minute.

378
00:41:45,600 --> 00:41:55,570
Here's an act. OK. Whatever that act is, it might be me scratching my nose because I told you I.

379
00:41:55,570 --> 00:42:04,430
OK. I told David that if Mike isn't back today filming me, I'll let him know by structuring my news.

380
00:42:04,430 --> 00:42:10,300
OK. And so I'm scratching my nose. In effect, the structure of the movies is a lie.

381
00:42:10,300 --> 00:42:26,100
You said this, Mike, is that. So this act could be a stretching of the noose, but of course, it's also a lie.

382
00:42:26,100 --> 00:42:38,390
Well, that wouldn't be a lie, but it would be a stretching of the day. I know that that's quite important because some people say this is all media.

383
00:42:38,390 --> 00:42:48,350
Oh, I have to go a little bit. No, I'll never find this [INAUDIBLE] again.

384
00:42:48,350 --> 00:42:53,660
If you think think of OK, forgive me, I'm an object.

385
00:42:53,660 --> 00:43:00,920
I'm an object with many properties. There are many, many descriptions that pick out me uniquely, aren't there?

386
00:43:00,920 --> 00:43:09,320
So she's the only person in this room who's on the stage. She's the person who is director of studies and philosophy.

387
00:43:09,320 --> 00:43:15,230
So you do see she's the person who's wearing a turquoise jumper.

388
00:43:15,230 --> 00:43:19,580
Several other people here. But I'm the one on the stage wearing the turquoise comforts.

389
00:43:19,580 --> 00:43:24,650
You see, these are all uniquely identifying descriptions of me.

390
00:43:24,650 --> 00:43:28,220
So there are lots of different ways of getting to me in.

391
00:43:28,220 --> 00:43:40,800
The same thing is true of an action. Okay, here's the class of notice scratching.

392
00:43:40,800 --> 00:43:44,610
This one is a lie. OK?

393
00:43:44,610 --> 00:43:51,840
This is the one where I'm looking at they and say to tell him that Mike's not in the room.

394
00:43:51,840 --> 00:43:55,560
This one isn't. This is just a no stretching. OK.

395
00:43:55,560 --> 00:44:03,210
And this one is a I'm very bored with this sort of move and so on.

396
00:44:03,210 --> 00:44:07,350
You see, so it can be a token thing that is also a lie.

397
00:44:07,350 --> 00:44:11,720
But when any connexion. So hesitation action is an action.

398
00:44:11,720 --> 00:44:19,260
Escutcheon knows the fact that its action means that it must have an intention, mustn't it?

399
00:44:19,260 --> 00:44:25,890
OK. So if I come in Tripp overmatch and you will laugh, I might think to myself, oh, that's interesting.

400
00:44:25,890 --> 00:44:30,890
I might make him laugh. I'll do it again next week. So when I come in next week, I trip over much again.

401
00:44:30,890 --> 00:44:37,470
Now the first one was unintentional, wasn't it? The second one is intentional.

402
00:44:37,470 --> 00:44:43,440
So in order for it to be an action something, it's got to be something you've chosen to do.

403
00:44:43,440 --> 00:44:50,270
It's any action. You haven't chosen to do it. Not too much for which you're morally responsible.

404
00:44:50,270 --> 00:44:58,990
There can be manslaughter rather than murder. You might be culpably guilty of manslaughter, but you really shouldn't have been cleaning your gun.

405
00:44:58,990 --> 00:45:03,510
As it pointed at, David was loaded and so on.

406
00:45:03,510 --> 00:45:11,250
So that's more or less guilt attached to manslaughter. But in order for it to murder, there has to be an intention there.

407
00:45:11,250 --> 00:45:17,870
So you've got the intention. You've got an action. And you've got the consequences of an action.

408
00:45:17,870 --> 00:45:22,890
You're always going to be consequences of the action. So now David knows that Mike isn't there.

409
00:45:22,890 --> 00:45:26,770
He's got go an and ask where my kids or something like that.

410
00:45:26,770 --> 00:45:30,750
So there's a consequence. So every act has an intention.

411
00:45:30,750 --> 00:45:33,210
And as a consequence, I'm concerned.

412
00:45:33,210 --> 00:45:46,480
Aristotle thinks that the moral evaluation of an action carried goes on here, whereas utilitarianism thinks this an can only be evaluated fear.

413
00:45:46,480 --> 00:45:51,540
Okay, so it's not the intentions with which we act that make the act wrong.

414
00:45:51,540 --> 00:45:54,120
It's the consequences of the attack.

415
00:45:54,120 --> 00:46:07,920
So if I want to take my dear old arms out for tea and as I take her out, we cross the road and she's squashed by a bus.

416
00:46:07,920 --> 00:46:13,620
The action I have performed has been wrong, even though my intention was a good one.

417
00:46:13,620 --> 00:46:18,460
I'm going to feel guilty. You know, other people are going to worry about me.

418
00:46:18,460 --> 00:46:29,880
What counts is making an action wrong is its consequences. And you can see one huge advantage of this is that if we're looking at courts of law,

419
00:46:29,880 --> 00:46:34,380
it's pretty well only consequences that we can look at, isn't it?

420
00:46:34,380 --> 00:46:41,850
I have no way of getting to your intentions. Also isn't through your actions, including your linguistic actions.

421
00:46:41,850 --> 00:46:47,220
I mean, you might tell me that your intention was this that's or the other.

422
00:46:47,220 --> 00:46:54,960
So in a court of law, it's nearly always the consequences that matter more than the intention.

423
00:46:54,960 --> 00:47:01,080
Of course, I may want to get the attention, but do you think that somebody could always intent?

424
00:47:01,080 --> 00:47:06,570
Well, but as a matter of fact, everything they do is wrong.

425
00:47:06,570 --> 00:47:11,490
So they intend to do the right thing, but they never actually succeed.

426
00:47:11,490 --> 00:47:23,350
I mean, wouldn't you be getting a bit suspicious? So know this is the third top taken out and squashed under a bus.

427
00:47:23,350 --> 00:47:28,920
Funny enough, they each left me money, you know?

428
00:47:28,920 --> 00:47:35,880
I mean, what's going on here? So we look at we look at the consequences in order to determine the intentions.

429
00:47:35,880 --> 00:47:39,810
You know, let's look at something again. Oh, my goodness me.

430
00:47:39,810 --> 00:47:43,950
I just I meant to make her happy, etc. You're not going to believe me.

431
00:47:43,950 --> 00:47:50,180
I said in a court of law is it tends to be the consequences, not the.

432
00:47:50,180 --> 00:47:56,730
There's another nice thing about utilitarianism, and that is it gets us a bit of a decision procedure, doesn't it?

433
00:47:56,730 --> 00:48:04,230
So I mean, Aristotle has a school searching around for virtuous people and Kant has us searching

434
00:48:04,230 --> 00:48:11,190
our own intuitions for what the moral law tells us to do on this occasion.

435
00:48:11,190 --> 00:48:16,680
But utilitarian is an inductive, inductive moral theory.

436
00:48:16,680 --> 00:48:23,790
It tells us that whatever action will produce the greatest happiness is the greatest number is the right action.

437
00:48:23,790 --> 00:48:30,930
So it looks as if it's much easier to work out what you should or shouldn't do.

438
00:48:30,930 --> 00:48:35,910
But do you think that's maybe misleading? Oh, you all do then.

439
00:48:35,910 --> 00:48:39,570
So I think. Okay, let me just give you one example. Dropping the ball on.

440
00:48:39,570 --> 00:48:46,830
Hiroshima was not the right thing to do or not. Well, if you're a utilitarian, you think it was the right thing.

441
00:48:46,830 --> 00:48:52,080
If dropping the bomb produced the great stuff is the greatest number and it wasn't the right thing.

442
00:48:52,080 --> 00:48:56,340
If dropping the bomb didn't produce the greatest happiness, the greatest number.

443
00:48:56,340 --> 00:49:03,570
Now, what's the truth of the matter? Did dropping the bomb produce success, happiness, the greatest number or not?

444
00:49:03,570 --> 00:49:10,140
I mean, actually, we could give arguments, can't we, on both sides? There is a fact of the matter.

445
00:49:10,140 --> 00:49:16,890
But the chances of our ever knowing that fact are virtually nil, aren't they?

446
00:49:16,890 --> 00:49:23,730
So utilitarianism might seem to give us a very easy decision procedure, but actually it doesn't.

447
00:49:23,730 --> 00:49:30,850
And there are all sorts of other problems as well. I mean, to me, let's say that, David, this is such a happy, cheery person.

448
00:49:30,850 --> 00:49:38,820
You know, if he smiles all the time. It's very easy to make David happy, whereas Alison is a miserable.

449
00:49:38,820 --> 00:49:46,290
And I can say how I can produce much more happiness in this class by concentrating on David because he's very easy to make happy.

450
00:49:46,290 --> 00:49:51,900
And I can just ignore Alison because she's you know, nothing I can do is make her happy.

451
00:49:51,900 --> 00:49:57,930
I'm not talking about average happiness or total happiness. What is happiness anyway?

452
00:49:57,930 --> 00:50:04,860
So actually, utilitarianism is not as easy as it looks to to execute.

453
00:50:04,860 --> 00:50:16,290
Or you can worry out that we cannot know what will happen if we do all the facts.

454
00:50:16,290 --> 00:50:27,090
We can't know. Doesn't mean there isn't a fact of the matter. So, for example, all that three consecutive sets sevens and the decimal expansion of PI.

455
00:50:27,090 --> 00:50:37,600
Excuse me a second. I'm just looking for something here. Something I can't find.

456
00:50:37,600 --> 00:50:53,630
Done. So happy to see. Yes, the intentional doesn't happen.

457
00:50:53,630 --> 00:51:03,170
Well, no, no, I mean. I mean, ending a war doesn't make people happy, actually.

458
00:51:03,170 --> 00:51:08,250
And of course, the alleviation of unhappiness produces happiness as well.

459
00:51:08,250 --> 00:51:15,440
But sorry, going back to your question. You can't say that because we'll never know what the are.

460
00:51:15,440 --> 00:51:22,250
Therefore, that wasn't a fact. I mean, the decimal expansion of PI is an infinite extension.

461
00:51:22,250 --> 00:51:30,820
If there are no three consecutive settlements in the decimal expansion of PI, then we will never know this ever.

462
00:51:30,820 --> 00:51:37,900
And we can those that in principle, it doesn't mean the fact of the matter.

463
00:51:37,900 --> 00:51:43,600
Was there a tree here? Twenty thousand years ago?

464
00:51:43,600 --> 00:51:47,620
Right here. I mean, there is a factor that matter, isn't that?

465
00:51:47,620 --> 00:51:56,780
Will we ever know it? Well, it wasn't that.

466
00:51:56,780 --> 00:52:03,010
What is it? Nothing. I mean, this being a is being thrown all the world.

467
00:52:03,010 --> 00:52:07,540
The fact of what would happen. You could never know.

468
00:52:07,540 --> 00:52:12,190
Yes, but but that's a different problem, because the fact is, it was a long time ago.

469
00:52:12,190 --> 00:52:18,490
And with the problem, there is the fact of the matter now as to whether that would produce more happiness or not.

470
00:52:18,490 --> 00:52:23,980
But the fact that the future we can't know about happiness is actually very interesting, isn't it?

471
00:52:23,980 --> 00:52:31,570
Because it does mean that when you actually act, you don't know what the consequences of your action will be.

472
00:52:31,570 --> 00:52:38,470
You can make a good, good guess, perhaps, but you can never be certain what the consequences of your actions will be.

473
00:52:38,470 --> 00:52:47,820
So utilitarianism makes a very important distinction between the morality of an agent and the morality of an action.

474
00:52:47,820 --> 00:52:52,780
And where is the morality of the action? Always depends on the consequences.

475
00:52:52,780 --> 00:53:02,320
The moral morality of an agency depends upon the fact that they act with the intention of producing the best consequences.

476
00:53:02,320 --> 00:53:07,990
OK, so immoral cannot morally. Yes.

477
00:53:07,990 --> 00:53:17,410
So if I go to the principal minnow in a supermarket or something like that, and it's actually quite a small bomb.

478
00:53:17,410 --> 00:53:26,860
And as it goes off in it. So I'm trying you could probably see where I'm going somewhere, but I can't.

479
00:53:26,860 --> 00:53:31,420
It stops a major disaster from happening. It's something else.

480
00:53:31,420 --> 00:53:39,790
So my small bomb actually results in a lot more people being left alive than would otherwise have been left alive.

481
00:53:39,790 --> 00:53:45,800
The consequences of what I've done have been good, but what I did was bad.

482
00:53:45,800 --> 00:53:49,780
And so part of me might and I was bad for doing what I did.

483
00:53:49,780 --> 00:53:52,630
Even though the consequences of being good.

484
00:53:52,630 --> 00:54:06,300
So utilitarianism, you've got to make a distinction to be moral worth of the agent and the moral worth of the action that they perform.

485
00:54:06,300 --> 00:54:16,080
Problems for utilitarianism. One of the difficulties of utilitarianism is that it says that the action that

486
00:54:16,080 --> 00:54:24,450
produces the great something is the greatest number is the right action. But there seems to be some very clear counterexamples to this.

487
00:54:24,450 --> 00:54:32,280
For example, genocide. It looks as if utilitarianism could justify genocide.

488
00:54:32,280 --> 00:54:44,340
If you have a situation where the two of you downhill, the three of you down here are a different race for us or something, rather, from us.

489
00:54:44,340 --> 00:54:47,630
And we don't like them, do we? But they're not here.

490
00:54:47,630 --> 00:54:56,150
And many of them. All of it. So let's just get rid of them. OK, now that's produced the greatest happiness of greatest number.

491
00:54:56,150 --> 00:55:01,270
Because, you know, there are not many of you to be happy. Your happiness doesn't really count.

492
00:55:01,270 --> 00:55:08,350
And we all wanted them dead. So that's produced the greatest happiness of gross numbers, hasn't it?

493
00:55:08,350 --> 00:55:15,410
That looks a bit worrying. To say the least. Now, it might be that some of us feel pretty outraged that these people have been shot.

494
00:55:15,410 --> 00:55:22,470
So. So four of you over here think that was really awful. So we can actually put your unhappiness with their unhappiness.

495
00:55:22,470 --> 00:55:32,310
But can we ever be sure that the unhappiness of those who are against gendercide will outweigh the happiness of those who are for it?

496
00:55:32,310 --> 00:55:38,340
Can we be sure? No. It looks if we can't, in which case, if you go for utilitarianism,

497
00:55:38,340 --> 00:55:44,100
it rather looks as if you're opening yourself to the possibility of justifying genocide.

498
00:55:44,100 --> 00:55:50,630
And that's because the utilitarian human rights, the right to life, for example,

499
00:55:50,630 --> 00:55:58,550
is only a right on the understanding that your right to life isn't conflicting with the greatest happiness and grace.

500
00:55:58,550 --> 00:56:02,850
No. You have a right to life because on the whole,

501
00:56:02,850 --> 00:56:08,040
it produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number to treat people as if they have a right to life.

502
00:56:08,040 --> 00:56:16,680
But if somebody, your right to life comes into conflict, to the greatest happiness in the greatest number, then your right to life lapses.

503
00:56:16,680 --> 00:56:23,820
Okay. I have a duty to kill you. If killing you will produce the great sadness of the greatest number.

504
00:56:23,820 --> 00:56:29,370
So there seemed to be counterexamples to utilitarianism.

505
00:56:29,370 --> 00:56:36,100
On the other hand, it's so incredibly useful. I mean, we're we're actually using it to the National Health Service movement.

506
00:56:36,100 --> 00:56:44,530
And it's only One-Third of Collie's. So quality adjusted life years for something policy.

507
00:56:44,530 --> 00:56:51,870
Somebody out there, some quality adjusted life years when when a surgeon or a doctor is considering some

508
00:56:51,870 --> 00:56:56,240
sort of intervention and she can only afford to do one of these perhaps wrong.

509
00:56:56,240 --> 00:57:00,900
The other, you decide by looking at the quality of the.

510
00:57:00,900 --> 00:57:08,220
So the number of life years that would be produced by this intervention. So for you, it would be ten, and for you it would be five.

511
00:57:08,220 --> 00:57:11,970
And then you look at the quality of those years that you're producing.

512
00:57:11,970 --> 00:57:19,260
So you would have five actually pretty mediocre years where I would say I can give you five really good ones.

513
00:57:19,260 --> 00:57:22,360
Of course, I could not make it difficult for myself.

514
00:57:22,360 --> 00:57:29,640
But you see that you can look at Pawleys to give you some way, a measure of which intervention you should do.

515
00:57:29,640 --> 00:57:46,790
And that's based very, very firmly on utilitarianism, which will lead to more.

516
00:57:46,790 --> 00:57:56,220
Well, do you remember the sailor to the captain not to shut off their oxygen in the engine room on purpose?

517
00:57:56,220 --> 00:58:02,180
Well, utilitarianism did seem to justify shutting off fields to the.

518
00:58:02,180 --> 00:58:08,540
And it might justify war. But, of course, cannons could also perhaps justify war unsurpassable.

519
00:58:08,540 --> 00:58:18,110
If if the war seems to be their only thing that's treating others as ends in themselves or all the thing that the virtuous people would suggest.

520
00:58:18,110 --> 00:58:24,320
So it's not just utilitarianism that can justify war, that everyone can do that.

521
00:58:24,320 --> 00:58:31,700
But what utilitarianism could do couldn't justify genocide. And it's not obvious the other theories can do that.

522
00:58:31,700 --> 00:58:36,680
So if you want to justify genocide, utilitarianism is probably your theory.

523
00:58:36,680 --> 00:58:40,440
It makes it sounds as if I've got a to the sirens.

524
00:58:40,440 --> 00:58:48,950
This is absolutely not the case. I think that there are many ways of interpreting this in particular.

525
00:58:48,950 --> 00:58:58,370
I think that you might want to say that utilitarianism is a discredited theory, not a prescriptive one.

526
00:58:58,370 --> 00:59:10,040
In other words, it's not telling us that this is true, but that this is.

527
00:59:10,040 --> 00:59:23,130
It's something that we noticed in some of his comments that it was estimated because.

528
00:59:23,130 --> 00:59:28,110
Stop. OK. What was I say?

529
00:59:28,110 --> 00:59:33,890
Right. The descriptive theory is just say that what you do do the right action.

530
00:59:33,890 --> 00:59:37,680
It will work out that that was the action that produced the great something to squish.

531
00:59:37,680 --> 00:59:43,500
No, not that's what you should do. Because actually, there's something wrong with saying it's prescriptive.

532
00:59:43,500 --> 00:59:51,090
I mean, I intend to go home tonight after I've been swimming, of course, and have a glass of wine.

533
00:59:51,090 --> 00:59:57,270
Now, I could actually go and work in the Oxfam to go house for a bit or something like that,

534
00:59:57,270 --> 01:00:03,960
which would presumably make more people happy than me having my glass of wine.

535
01:00:03,960 --> 01:00:05,520
Should I be doing that?

536
01:00:05,520 --> 01:00:14,460
I mean, surely I actually if what I'm supposed to do is producing a very suddenly suppressed number all the time, I'm going to get very tired.

537
01:00:14,460 --> 01:00:18,730
So you might think it's not a prescriptive theory to put a descriptive one.

538
01:00:18,730 --> 01:00:22,950
So I didn't do that. The bad news headlines about utilitarianism.

539
01:00:22,950 --> 01:00:35,830
But I promise you that there are ways of understanding this that make it much less simple than deny giving the impression of saying, you know.

540
01:00:35,830 --> 01:00:41,200
Three, but I wonder to pay is that make me feel good?

541
01:00:41,200 --> 01:00:44,530
That's it. Child development you have to develop.

542
01:00:44,530 --> 01:00:54,010
We're using the food that makes the crucial switch from whether it's externally imposed by consequences imposed by.

543
01:00:54,010 --> 01:00:58,400
Mommy, punish me. And when it rains, it comes into.

544
01:00:58,400 --> 01:01:03,900
This is one of the major factors is that childhood development development?

545
01:01:03,900 --> 01:01:16,440
Yeah. And for any moral philosophy, it doesn't actually take into account that one of the major concerns of Oromo reasoning is.

546
01:01:16,440 --> 01:01:20,550
But surveys can all take and was pass because.

547
01:01:20,550 --> 01:01:25,540
Yes. Capitalism is it seems to sort of be right?

548
01:01:25,540 --> 01:01:34,400
Well, I'm concerned for your happiness, I think. And I've got to exercise an empathy is only a method of determining what others are feeling.

549
01:01:34,400 --> 01:01:44,350
I did if I put myself in your position that I'm using empathy, but I'm using empathy to determine what's going to make you happy or I'm imagining,

550
01:01:44,350 --> 01:01:48,820
you know, who's going to be affected by my action, how will they be affected by it?

551
01:01:48,820 --> 01:01:53,980
Or I'm thinking, what is it in this situation to treat to in yourself?

552
01:01:53,980 --> 01:01:58,330
What would you choose if you if I was able to ask you again?

553
01:01:58,330 --> 01:02:10,480
I've got to use empathy. It's supposed to be the human body is simply actually experiencing the experience, not the other person.

554
01:02:10,480 --> 01:02:14,230
It's not it's not the reasoning or the rational person. Maybe not.

555
01:02:14,230 --> 01:02:22,450
But the fact is, it's all there acting on. I mean, think back to what Aristotle said about you can be naturally benevolent and I mean children.

556
01:02:22,450 --> 01:02:27,850
If one child in the nursery starts screaming, the others are going to come out in sympathy very quick.

557
01:02:27,850 --> 01:02:31,130
And if you cry in front of the child, the child gets very distressed.

558
01:02:31,130 --> 01:02:37,210
I mean, children are naturally empathetic, but that boy, they're not naturally moral.

559
01:02:37,210 --> 01:02:42,400
I mean, aid in order to become moral. They've got to learn what the right action is.

560
01:02:42,400 --> 01:02:48,660
They've got to learn that they've got to do the right action and they've got to do it for the right reasons.

561
01:02:48,660 --> 01:02:56,520
So that is the beginning of knowing that other people have feelings and experiences like you have a family.

562
01:02:56,520 --> 01:03:02,690
Yes. And then from that, you begin to see a finding such and such.

563
01:03:02,690 --> 01:03:09,040
And so it will hurt. I don't like it. Yes, but you give it a psychological theory of morality.

564
01:03:09,040 --> 01:03:16,270
I'm interested in the philosophical theory of morality. So in the same way I can say it, we can be interested in language.

565
01:03:16,270 --> 01:03:20,890
What is language? What is meaning? How do we manage to communicate with each other?

566
01:03:20,890 --> 01:03:25,960
That's a philosophical interest. All we can say, how does language develop in a child?

567
01:03:25,960 --> 01:03:30,760
That's a psychological theory. And I'm teaching you philosophy.

568
01:03:30,760 --> 01:03:40,210
I don't know. Know, it's just sort of more sophisticated development of that law and things like that.

569
01:03:40,210 --> 01:03:43,940
Otherwise, where this will come from. Yeah.

570
01:03:43,940 --> 01:03:49,670
OK. Margaret, did you have a specific question, though?

571
01:03:49,670 --> 01:03:57,570
I was asking you to describe this theory was prescriptive theory tells you what you ought to do.

572
01:03:57,570 --> 01:04:01,870
Such a prescription of your actually not just the description.

573
01:04:01,870 --> 01:04:10,370
You obviously, obviously had to write actions because.

574
01:04:10,370 --> 01:04:13,350
Or, you know, you don't have to do it.

575
01:04:13,350 --> 01:04:20,650
It's just that utilitarianism is a prescriptive theory, says you should produce great suppleness, the greatest number.

576
01:04:20,650 --> 01:04:22,950
It's a descriptive theory.

577
01:04:22,950 --> 01:04:31,520
When you have done the right action, it will be the case that it does produce great stuff, this number, whatever your intention was in doing it.

578
01:04:31,520 --> 01:04:37,330
Yes. OK. Including if you intended to do wrong.

579
01:04:37,330 --> 01:04:43,720
OK. I'm going to move on to politics now because otherwise we're not going to get politics done.

580
01:04:43,720 --> 01:04:48,750
OK, so that's ethical theory and it's to go back to the developmental thing.

581
01:04:48,750 --> 01:04:57,270
Of course, empathy is important. I think empathy is actually I called it charity, the principle of charity.

582
01:04:57,270 --> 01:05:03,840
I think there's very good reason to think that when we're trying to understand this world,

583
01:05:03,840 --> 01:05:09,480
we're constrained in all our thinking by something called the gospel of the uniformity of nature.

584
01:05:09,480 --> 01:05:17,460
In other words, if we want to understand whether A causes B, we've got to see that, see if we can get name without a B, because if we can.

585
01:05:17,460 --> 01:05:22,320
That shows A doesn't cause B, so we're assuming Natuzzi reform.

586
01:05:22,320 --> 01:05:27,510
But in the case of understanding each other, we've got to use the principle of charity,

587
01:05:27,510 --> 01:05:33,120
which is a form of empathy, where if you say something that strikes me as mad.

588
01:05:33,120 --> 01:05:38,100
So you say P and I say, look, you know, it's obviously not.

589
01:05:38,100 --> 01:05:46,500
Now, I could just dismiss you as stupid. But actually, if you're right, I'll be losing my opportunity to learn something.

590
01:05:46,500 --> 01:05:59,420
So the principle of charity tells you to to always assume that the other person's error is less likely and your bad interpretation.

591
01:05:59,420 --> 01:06:08,100
OK, so if you seem to be saying something mad, it's probably because I haven't understood you and I need to ask you, why are you saying that?

592
01:06:08,100 --> 01:06:17,070
What if I dismiss you as mad then and there's something wrong with me because you're a worthy collaborator in pursuit of truth.

593
01:06:17,070 --> 01:06:23,250
You're a rational animal. I'm doing wrong by dismissing you is stupid.

594
01:06:23,250 --> 01:06:34,020
OK, moving on to politics, I'm going to talk about just one political issue, because it's quite nice and central issue, distributive justice.

595
01:06:34,020 --> 01:06:42,720
How do we distribute the goods of society in such a way as it's done to us to do justice Kelly?

596
01:06:42,720 --> 01:06:48,910
So in this country, we not only have a tax regime, we also have a benefits regime.

597
01:06:48,910 --> 01:06:52,110
And we redistribute wealth in various ways.

598
01:06:52,110 --> 01:07:02,040
And we presumably do this because we think that this is the just most just way of distributing things like education, the vote,

599
01:07:02,040 --> 01:07:11,780
freedom of speech, etc. We try and equalise it, but we don't go for equality and we go for redistribution of the sort that we do.

600
01:07:11,780 --> 01:07:17,430
And I'm going to be talking about two philosophers, John Rawls and Robert Nosek.

601
01:07:17,430 --> 01:07:26,040
First, I want to talk about rules, too. I can talk to a party that gets in the.

602
01:07:26,040 --> 01:07:33,490
Right. I I've no idea how that got there.

603
01:07:33,490 --> 01:07:39,330
No idea. I don't. I think he's still a lot. I.

604
01:07:39,330 --> 01:07:44,390
I'll have to look it up anyway. It's definitely not box or release.

605
01:07:44,390 --> 01:07:54,590
If it is, I don't know. Okay. Rose wrote a very influential, hugely influential book called Fair Justice.

606
01:07:54,590 --> 01:08:03,560
It's very big. It's very boring. I don't recommend it, but it is it has some very interesting stuff in it.

607
01:08:03,560 --> 01:08:12,140
And what rules sets out to do is to choose the principles of justice for society, he says.

608
01:08:12,140 --> 01:08:20,460
What is it? That was all the principles on which goods should be distributed in such ways to make it as just as possible.

609
01:08:20,460 --> 01:08:32,090
And the real hallmark of rules is originality was something called the original position, which is his way of choosing the principles of justice.

610
01:08:32,090 --> 01:08:43,850
This is how he did it. The original position is a position where people of a certain kind are put in a certain position.

611
01:08:43,850 --> 01:08:52,100
I'm asked to decide on the rules by which justice should be by which good should be distributed.

612
01:08:52,100 --> 01:08:58,830
The people are like this. They're rational. They're self-interested.

613
01:08:58,830 --> 01:09:04,760
OK, so. So they're not stupid. They they care about themselves.

614
01:09:04,760 --> 01:09:10,490
But they also, you know, they're quite happy to be kind to other people.

615
01:09:10,490 --> 01:09:15,860
They're also risk averse. They don't really want to put themselves into into a difficult position.

616
01:09:15,860 --> 01:09:25,850
They don't want to take risks. And the original position was that the sort of the position that Putin is behind the veil of ignorance.

617
01:09:25,850 --> 01:09:32,660
Now, the veil of ignorance means that you don't know anything about yourself.

618
01:09:32,660 --> 01:09:37,010
So you don't know whether you're male or female. You don't know whether you're old or young.

619
01:09:37,010 --> 01:09:45,930
You don't know whether you're rich or poor, black or white, intelligent or stupid, ill or fit.

620
01:09:45,930 --> 01:09:51,740
OK. You know nothing about yourself. You could be any of these things.

621
01:09:51,740 --> 01:10:01,770
OK. The only knowledge you have is the thin theory of good rules, cause that's what this in theory good is.

622
01:10:01,770 --> 01:10:07,770
It tells you things like human beings need warmth.

623
01:10:07,770 --> 01:10:15,780
They need comfort. They need a certain amount of property over which they have autonomy.

624
01:10:15,780 --> 01:10:26,100
Humans gestate for nine months. So you you have the basic physiological, psychological, political or economic facts about human beings.

625
01:10:26,100 --> 01:10:29,130
But you don't know anything about you.

626
01:10:29,130 --> 01:10:39,700
Now you've got to decide what the principles of justice should be and what those things is that because you're behind the veil of ignorance.

627
01:10:39,700 --> 01:10:44,220
You're forced to be fair. OK.

628
01:10:44,220 --> 01:10:45,920
You don't know whether your well sick.

629
01:10:45,920 --> 01:10:53,460
So you're not going to make the set up such that people are set to be discriminated against because that might be you.

630
01:10:53,460 --> 01:10:58,200
You don't know whether you're rich or poor. So you're not going to give the rich everything or leave the poor with nothing.

631
01:10:58,200 --> 01:11:01,500
Like a poor. You're not going to be. You don't.

632
01:11:01,500 --> 01:11:06,660
Whether you're black or white. So you're not going to set up a system so that black people are discriminated against

633
01:11:06,660 --> 01:11:10,350
or white people are discriminated against because you don't know who you are.

634
01:11:10,350 --> 01:11:16,380
Ditto with female. If they were. I mean. Because you don't know who you are.

635
01:11:16,380 --> 01:11:24,030
Your self interest is not going to work for any particular type of person.

636
01:11:24,030 --> 01:11:31,800
Your self-interest is going to work on behalf of anyone or rather everyone who might cover.

637
01:11:31,800 --> 01:11:45,360
Isn't it good? I do. I'm just rules thinks that the two principles of justice that he believes will come out of this process are these two.

638
01:11:45,360 --> 01:11:52,060
Everyone's entitled to maximum liberty, compatible with equal liberty for all.

639
01:11:52,060 --> 01:11:57,830
OK. So actually, he's a libertarian. He is a consequentialist.

640
01:11:57,830 --> 01:12:03,840
But whereas is to the terrible happiness as the sun burns the thing we all want.

641
01:12:03,840 --> 01:12:08,550
He puts liberty there. It's liberty. That's the most important thing.

642
01:12:08,550 --> 01:12:14,190
And you could say we want equality. Things should be distributed equally.

643
01:12:14,190 --> 01:12:20,700
But if you do that, you're you're not taking account of the fact that we're not given an equal distribution to start with.

644
01:12:20,700 --> 01:12:27,240
All we know. If I male, I possibly need more goods than you need because you'll fit.

645
01:12:27,240 --> 01:12:34,390
So he says the inequalities are permitted, but only when they make the worse off, better off.

646
01:12:34,390 --> 01:12:37,230
OK, so those are two principles of justice.

647
01:12:37,230 --> 01:12:45,060
So to evaluate rules, you've got to think, OK, what do we think of the original position in the first place?

648
01:12:45,060 --> 01:12:49,470
And what do we think of the principles of justice that come out of it?

649
01:12:49,470 --> 01:12:56,880
I mean, we might think we might dismiss the original position is not a good idea or we might dismiss the principles of justice.

650
01:12:56,880 --> 01:13:03,120
Come out and I'll say just a little something on the original position.

651
01:13:03,120 --> 01:13:14,850
One important thing you've got to work out is just how which information goes where behind the veil of ignorance or in this hidden theory of good.

652
01:13:14,850 --> 01:13:21,740
Let's say that you believe that women are very emotional, okay.

653
01:13:21,740 --> 01:13:30,420
And that therefore they shouldn't be allowed to fly planes. Now, do you think women are very emotional into the things here of good?

654
01:13:30,420 --> 01:13:38,820
Because this is a fact, about half the human race. I'm just as you put it, it's women who have babies because it would be very important.

655
01:13:38,820 --> 01:13:47,940
That was it in the thin period. Wouldn't it? Do you think women are emotional in that or do you put that in the behind the veil of ignorance?

656
01:13:47,940 --> 01:14:01,080
So your decision about where you put various bits of information is actually going to serve garbage in, garbage out in effect, isn't it?

657
01:14:01,080 --> 01:14:05,820
So somebody in South Africa might have put all sorts of things about black people into the

658
01:14:05,820 --> 01:14:11,580
thin theory of goods that we would think probably belong in the behind the veil of ignorance.

659
01:14:11,580 --> 01:14:19,560
People 200 years ago would have put a lot of facts about women into the same theory of good that we think ought to be behind the veil of ignorance.

660
01:14:19,560 --> 01:14:27,210
So. So surely it's the whole thing. Just question, Becky, that we're going to put in the veil of ignorance.

661
01:14:27,210 --> 01:14:34,110
All the things, all our prejudices are going to be exercised simply in the division of where we put things.

662
01:14:34,110 --> 01:14:38,710
That's one thing. There's no same problem. We might think that's OK.

663
01:14:38,710 --> 01:14:43,270
Inequalities are permitted when they make the worse off, better off.

664
01:14:43,270 --> 01:14:50,350
Well, OK. Let's say that I've got something I can do in this room.

665
01:14:50,350 --> 01:14:55,530
You're the worse off. Sorry, you didn't really badly to them. No, the worse off.

666
01:14:55,530 --> 01:15:02,970
We're the best off. And I can do something is going to make us a lot better off.

667
01:15:02,970 --> 01:15:09,820
Who can really do something? Unfortunately, it's not going to shift them by so much as a halfpenny.

668
01:15:09,820 --> 01:15:19,560
OK. Now, this is ruled out. We can't do that because this is an inequality that isn't making the worse off, better off.

669
01:15:19,560 --> 01:15:27,030
On the other hand, I could do it if I make and just half a penny better off.

670
01:15:27,030 --> 01:15:32,100
We can Upshaw's by just a tiny little something like that.

671
01:15:32,100 --> 01:15:42,390
So there seems to be something of a politics of envy that could work in here, quite worryingly,

672
01:15:42,390 --> 01:15:47,490
because it might prevent changes that would make an awful lot of people better off,

673
01:15:47,490 --> 01:15:52,470
but would be prevented just because it doesn't make the worse off, better off.

674
01:15:52,470 --> 01:16:01,470
So that's all I can say by the rules. But that that's a very quick romp through distributive justice according to the theory of justice.

675
01:16:01,470 --> 01:16:05,550
And the original position is the key thing in that point.

676
01:16:05,550 --> 01:16:12,320
And of that, it's the original position and the thing, theory of good fortune.

677
01:16:12,320 --> 01:16:17,970
Enough fine, man. It's going to no thick no. Nosik holds a Lockean.

678
01:16:17,970 --> 01:16:22,720
John Locke, English philosopher of property theory.

679
01:16:22,720 --> 01:16:35,340
And what that says in effect is, is that you own the labour of your own body and everything with which you mix that labour.

680
01:16:35,340 --> 01:16:42,930
Now, that's actually this theory of property is is underpins the American constitution.

681
01:16:42,930 --> 01:16:45,330
It also underpins much of our law.

682
01:16:45,330 --> 01:16:56,700
I mean, for example, there was a time when you were allowed to include all the lands that you and your family could power between sunrise and sunset.

683
01:16:56,700 --> 01:17:02,860
And one thing that was wrong, fair about this is that you if you were very strong and you had a family of lusty sons,

684
01:17:02,860 --> 01:17:08,580
you get up there and power lots of land, then you could impose a lot of that land between sunrise and sunset.

685
01:17:08,580 --> 01:17:12,630
But you could also work, you know, with all these sons.

686
01:17:12,630 --> 01:17:23,670
And what's what? You eat it, too. What is it if you and your little mother were telling that, you know, you couldn't get much done?

687
01:17:23,670 --> 01:17:29,800
But on the other hand, you wouldn't need that much either, would you? So that was the idea between you.

688
01:17:29,800 --> 01:17:34,570
You can own what you mix your labour with big problems, though.

689
01:17:34,570 --> 01:17:40,590
And somebody pointed out that if I add to your wine glass into the sea. Have I lost my wine or games of the sea?

690
01:17:40,590 --> 01:17:50,790
Even if I'm telling the lands to, I also get to own the mineral rights under the land or just the topsoil.

691
01:17:50,790 --> 01:17:55,720
So there are big there is another big theory, not specified and surface news,

692
01:17:55,720 --> 01:18:01,900
but you've got to leave as good as much behind for people who come off to you.

693
01:18:01,900 --> 01:18:08,910
And the trouble with this is it can zip back. If there are 10 apples, then you take one, you take you on, you take one, you take one.

694
01:18:08,910 --> 01:18:14,240
But when it gets to the 10th, I can't take it. I'm not leaving as good and as much behind.

695
01:18:14,240 --> 01:18:20,370
But if I can't take it, neither can the ninth. Personal, big, a perfect world, personal and personal.

696
01:18:20,370 --> 01:18:25,110
And it looks as if mother property can't be owned at all.

697
01:18:25,110 --> 01:18:34,020
If you think of the settlement principle. So there are problems with the Lockean property theory which underpins No.6 theory.

698
01:18:34,020 --> 01:18:39,180
But one of the big things that he claims is that taxation is forced labour.

699
01:18:39,180 --> 01:18:45,330
And his argument for this. He talks about Wilt Chamberlain, who was a basketball player.

700
01:18:45,330 --> 01:18:50,370
Now, Wilt is a wonderful basketball player. He's actually fantastic.

701
01:18:50,370 --> 01:18:53,990
And you all have a certain number of holdings.

702
01:18:53,990 --> 01:18:58,060
Okay, you've got this money. Let's say we've all got equal amounts of money.

703
01:18:58,060 --> 01:19:02,160
And since Wilt, we thought that everyone, including Wilt, has the same amount of money.

704
01:19:02,160 --> 01:19:10,890
But Wilt has this talent. Okay. But he says on any good exercise, this talent, if you pay me and we all say, that's all I will pay.

705
01:19:10,890 --> 01:19:17,370
We'll give you 25 cents for the same basketball. What Wilt does play basketball.

706
01:19:17,370 --> 01:19:25,440
He ends up richer than the rest of us. Now, No.6 says that's fair.

707
01:19:25,440 --> 01:19:31,830
You all chose to give him the extra type of 25 cents. He chose to exercise his talents.

708
01:19:31,830 --> 01:19:35,970
He didn't have to work like that. And he's unequal.

709
01:19:35,970 --> 01:19:43,070
Wealth is owned by him. If you now take 25 percent of that away in taxation, you're in effect.

710
01:19:43,070 --> 01:19:51,040
You're forcing him to work for 25 percent of the time. I mean, for the hour and a half, I've been measuring two percent of that.

711
01:19:51,040 --> 01:19:56,010
I think. It's good to be taken away from you. Yeah, that's wicked.

712
01:19:56,010 --> 01:19:59,940
Well, shouldn't I be left with that 25 percent?

713
01:19:59,940 --> 01:20:06,000
We could then. I mean, we could have private medicine, private education, toll roads and so on.

714
01:20:06,000 --> 01:20:11,780
Why should the states take that money away and spend it on things that I don't have any children?

715
01:20:11,780 --> 01:20:19,500
Why should I spend money on education? I don't drive. Why should I spend money on rock on the roads?

716
01:20:19,500 --> 01:20:24,240
So the conflict between liberty and equality, the only way says no.

717
01:20:24,240 --> 01:20:33,580
Sick of avoiding that link is you either have to interfere with Wilt's ability to choose whether or not to exercise his talents.

718
01:20:33,580 --> 01:20:42,790
You've got to make an exercise first for no extra money. Or you've got to stop you from choosing to spend your money freely.

719
01:20:42,790 --> 01:20:49,650
OK. You can't spend it all on wealth. Either way, there's a conflict between liberty and equality.

720
01:20:49,650 --> 01:20:54,920
And that, says Nosek, is the key problem for all liberals.

721
01:20:54,920 --> 01:21:01,770
Theories of distributive justice. What do you think of that as a theory?

722
01:21:01,770 --> 01:21:09,750
Rubbish. That's why I think.

723
01:21:09,750 --> 01:21:15,420
I don't want some fur here. But it does look stupid.

724
01:21:15,420 --> 01:21:27,880
Justice, choosing to super talented, go to the right or this, that and the other escapes perpetuate inequality.

725
01:21:27,880 --> 01:21:33,750
Where is taxation as we are conservatives? Should I go to the polls?

726
01:21:33,750 --> 01:21:43,980
But surely Hillary. Sounds good, but no, it could say that there's nothing uneven about this taxation.

727
01:21:43,980 --> 01:21:48,120
If we're starting from sorry about private use.

728
01:21:48,120 --> 01:21:54,390
Look, I've tried to legal that. If we've all started with equality.

729
01:21:54,390 --> 01:22:04,200
OK? I don't have children and I don't have a car, but I do like swimming occasionally.

730
01:22:04,200 --> 01:22:13,800
I would like to spend my money on decent leisure facilities in National Trust, things like that.

731
01:22:13,800 --> 01:22:18,550
You had a car. You would what you would be prepared to pay to have toll roads.

732
01:22:18,550 --> 01:22:23,250
Top so private. Any of you who might get sick.

733
01:22:23,250 --> 01:22:30,640
Probably all of us would want to pay for private insurance to make sure that we had hospitals available when we did it.

734
01:22:30,640 --> 01:22:37,200
So it's not that there wouldn't be hospitals that we cancelled.

735
01:22:37,200 --> 01:22:40,850
Well, that's but that's exactly his point.

736
01:22:40,850 --> 01:22:50,930
It's it's his point is that as we do not sometimes equal and you want to encourage everyone to use their talents,

737
01:22:50,930 --> 01:22:59,610
if you're sick enough to make it to stop them from using their talents by taxing them, then you're going to lose.

738
01:22:59,610 --> 01:23:04,350
They're not going to use those terms. I mean, in some ways you can see that this happens.

739
01:23:04,350 --> 01:23:11,130
Taxation is set too high. These are people with challenge are going to leave the country and not pay them.

740
01:23:11,130 --> 01:23:20,040
So it's quite it's crucial, isn't it? And set the taxation level so that you don't lose the people who because there is this conflict.

741
01:23:20,040 --> 01:23:23,380
So it's not to say there shouldn't be any taxation,

742
01:23:23,380 --> 01:23:35,700
but he's saying that if you get taxation is forced labour and therefore you don't want too much of it.

743
01:23:35,700 --> 01:23:39,510
Well, I mean, one thing you might say is, is that if you tax people sorry,

744
01:23:39,510 --> 01:23:45,650
if you don't tax people thought there are some people who get to pull out of the net.

745
01:23:45,650 --> 01:23:51,990
You might say there has to be a safety net and someone knows it wouldn't even accept that.

746
01:23:51,990 --> 01:23:58,050
He thinks that very importantly, charity must be supported in a big way.

747
01:23:58,050 --> 01:24:02,820
So it must be voluntary.

748
01:24:02,820 --> 01:24:10,230
Giving becomes very important in a society where there is very little taxation and taxation.

749
01:24:10,230 --> 01:24:20,830
And I'm sure that must encourage that. Well, in schools and in I mean, there are there are ways of encouraging giving.

750
01:24:20,830 --> 01:24:27,460
They do it in America very much. They do it here. There were.

751
01:24:27,460 --> 01:24:43,130
We will find out when two people part of.

752
01:24:43,130 --> 01:24:49,770
Yeah. Kimberly, yes, he has, because Wilt Chamberlain wanted to get to be a milkman.

753
01:24:49,770 --> 01:24:55,620
Let's say he did not want to play basketball. He's playing basketball.

754
01:24:55,620 --> 01:25:07,670
And you're prepared to pay. He doesn't like playing basketball.

755
01:25:07,670 --> 01:25:14,910
Okay, well, that's that's got five minutes for questions. Let's so let's have some questions out on ethics and politics.

756
01:25:14,910 --> 01:25:18,630
Surely everybody equal. On Monday.

757
01:25:18,630 --> 01:25:22,560
The next day. That's his that's his response.

758
01:25:22,560 --> 01:25:28,800
Yeah. His point is that in order to get some quality, you've got to interfere with liberty.

759
01:25:28,800 --> 01:25:42,270
And in order to get liberty, you cannot assume equality will follow because it plays a key conflict between liberty and equality.

760
01:25:42,270 --> 01:25:44,750
But the light truth and.

761
01:25:44,750 --> 01:25:57,400
Georgia, I'm sorry, the way that those points made, and I think it is very small, but a very funny I that isn't just about money.

762
01:25:57,400 --> 01:26:01,050
I think you will be paid for taxation.

763
01:26:01,050 --> 01:26:06,800
But no, distributive justice is about the goods in society.

764
01:26:06,800 --> 01:26:14,490
So it includes things like the boat, education, the roads, hospitals, health, everything.

765
01:26:14,490 --> 01:26:23,430
That's fine. But of course, given the way our societies are, as a matter of fact, set up because it's money that pays for these things.

766
01:26:23,430 --> 01:26:41,590
So it does tend to come down to money. Please sit down.

767
01:26:41,590 --> 01:26:58,160
Yes. Try this. This is. How about this?

768
01:26:58,160 --> 01:27:06,830
Well, the question remains, what shall I also want one just quickly, because I'll forget it otherwise.

769
01:27:06,830 --> 01:27:18,140
One contradiction in the body of its work is he does think that you have to have property to be autonomous.

770
01:27:18,140 --> 01:27:24,260
So it is for him. Autonomy is the key value that businesses make choices.

771
01:27:24,260 --> 01:27:30,620
The key value. But if you need property in order to make choices and if on his theory,

772
01:27:30,620 --> 01:27:41,620
you could be left without any property at all because there's nobody redistributive mechanisms in society, then surely that can't be right.

773
01:27:41,620 --> 01:27:43,100
There's got to be something wrong with that.

774
01:27:43,100 --> 01:27:50,120
Social ills, with some basic redistributive mechanism to at least ensure that everybody has some property.

775
01:27:50,120 --> 01:28:06,190
However much is needed to be autonomous if being autonomous is the most.

776
01:28:06,190 --> 01:28:19,870
And I was just you know what I mean, is he possibly. But he's a libertarian and he's not just a possible.

777
01:28:19,870 --> 01:28:27,920
Oh, yes. I mean I mean in philosophy as a people, I mean,

778
01:28:27,920 --> 01:28:35,210
one would hope that their physical positions are broken rather more thought out than those of non philosophers.

779
01:28:35,210 --> 01:28:39,790
But I'm afraid this isn't necessarily so. But yeah.

780
01:28:39,790 --> 01:28:43,130
Philosopher with a political position, Roger Scruton, for example,

781
01:28:43,130 --> 01:28:48,640
is another famous loss where the wrong things, political positions and are lost was lost.

782
01:28:48,640 --> 01:28:53,060
As to who a political sceptics as well.

783
01:28:53,060 --> 01:29:04,500
So you can go either way. Our forces, virtuous people.

784
01:29:04,500 --> 01:29:11,170
I'm a little bit suspicious also. It's very hard to find somebody who can be equally reliable.

785
01:29:11,170 --> 01:29:16,860
All right. They are.

786
01:29:16,860 --> 01:29:22,250
Butterflies. Oh, I say, baby.

787
01:29:22,250 --> 01:29:27,450
When don't know that they have decided to do something special.

788
01:29:27,450 --> 01:29:34,220
They need to keep it in. Why?

789
01:29:34,220 --> 01:29:40,820
Well, I mean, I think it's all right in practise as well, because it's what we did in the practise.

790
01:29:40,820 --> 01:29:52,190
I mean, Aristotle would think that somebody could somebody who's virtuous would be virtuous about everything,

791
01:29:52,190 --> 01:30:07,800
although he would admit that they can get it wrong. Oh, no influence by the framers.

792
01:30:07,800 --> 01:30:16,670
Yes. I mean, one thing you would want to do if you were a wise and virtuous person is to look at the problem as effectively as possible.

793
01:30:16,670 --> 01:30:18,770
I mean, you would try not to let these.

794
01:30:18,770 --> 01:30:26,520
And also, you might say, I'm sorry, this is this this is something which I don't want to advise you because I know that I'm going to be biased.

795
01:30:26,520 --> 01:30:34,220
And I know that it's going to be biased. Therefore, this is also an issue which I want to be consulted.

796
01:30:34,220 --> 01:30:39,270
I think that's perfectly reasonable and consistent with being virtues.

797
01:30:39,270 --> 01:30:43,220
But perhaps people would say. Two very good ones.

798
01:30:43,220 --> 01:30:48,240
One here. One man is coming back next year. Do not impose.

799
01:30:48,240 --> 01:30:51,740
Absolutely. That's right. That's right.

800
01:30:51,740 --> 01:30:56,840
So actually, all the theories we've looked at here, absolutist theories.

801
01:30:56,840 --> 01:31:04,166
Yes.