1 00:00:00,060 --> 00:00:14,120 You guys now. So it's my pleasure to welcome here today to give the final also summing up the term to welcome Ben Bowling 2 00:00:14,120 --> 00:00:19,609 who is professor of criminology and criminal justice at the Dixon CUNY School of Law at King's College, 3 00:00:19,610 --> 00:00:26,689 London. Ben works on various aspects to do with policing scholarship, 4 00:00:26,690 --> 00:00:31,460 and so [INAUDIBLE] be talking to us today about some of the most recent work he's been doing, and he has, 5 00:00:31,940 --> 00:00:35,929 over the course of his career, been advisor to the UK Parliament, 6 00:00:35,930 --> 00:00:41,330 Foreign Office Equality and Human Rights Commission, the European Commission, Interpol and the United Nations. 7 00:00:41,690 --> 00:00:43,549 Ben is founding member of Stop Watch, 8 00:00:43,550 --> 00:00:51,050 a charity that works to inform the public about the use of stop and search powers and to promote fair, effective and accountable policing. 9 00:00:51,770 --> 00:00:55,579 Ben had circulated a paper ahead of time, which hopefully everybody received. 10 00:00:55,580 --> 00:00:58,730 Although I've warned him, I suspect few people will have had time to read. 11 00:00:59,810 --> 00:01:02,300 But he will be talking to that paper today. 12 00:01:03,080 --> 00:01:09,890 And just so that I don't forget to tell you, for those of you who want to accompany us afterwards, we do generally go to a pub for a drink. 13 00:01:10,370 --> 00:01:14,870 We normally go to the King's Arms for Julian every week befuddles me by suggesting somewhere else. 14 00:01:15,170 --> 00:01:21,230 And so this week he has suggested the matter, which is closer because it's too cold to walk to the king's arms. 15 00:01:21,440 --> 00:01:25,130 So we're going to go we're going to go to the Mitre, which I think is that direction. 16 00:01:25,340 --> 00:01:28,390 So if you want to come along, please do spend it over to you. 17 00:01:28,940 --> 00:01:35,960 Thank you very much indeed for that very warm welcome. So wonderful to see so many people here on a rather chilly and grey Oxford Day. 18 00:01:37,670 --> 00:01:41,990 So the title of my talk today is The Politics of Global Policing. 19 00:01:42,200 --> 00:01:49,700 And What I'm going to be speaking to is chapter nine of the fifth edition of The Politics of the Police, 20 00:01:51,080 --> 00:01:59,140 which anybody who will have studied policing up to this point will know is Robert Ryan as a sort of monograph, 21 00:01:59,150 --> 00:02:10,490 a textbook he thing the one of the key, if not the key book on policing in the UK, first published in 1985. 22 00:02:11,930 --> 00:02:16,129 So what I plan to do is to say a little bit about the politics of the police 23 00:02:16,130 --> 00:02:22,880 and progress towards the fifth edition and what's new in the fifth edition. 24 00:02:23,060 --> 00:02:33,410 And then to speak to the paper, which is, as I say, a chapter in the book to raise some questions around the definition of global policing, 25 00:02:34,100 --> 00:02:42,200 what it constitutes in practice, and some of the particular issues that it throws up in terms of democratic accountability of policing. 26 00:02:43,790 --> 00:02:45,260 So first, the politics of the police. 27 00:02:45,410 --> 00:02:57,200 So our book was written in 1984, published in 1985, just as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act have been passed. 28 00:02:57,920 --> 00:03:03,950 And so for the first time, procedural law, happy was being established in statute, 29 00:03:05,120 --> 00:03:09,320 really providing a new framework for the regulation for the governance of the police. 30 00:03:09,470 --> 00:03:13,970 It was also a a time of very significant social conflict. 31 00:03:14,360 --> 00:03:20,239 There'd be major police riots in 1981, and there were riots again in March 85. 32 00:03:20,240 --> 00:03:26,480 And they've been a kind of rumbling, slow riot throughout the very end of the seventies and throughout the 1980s. 33 00:03:27,050 --> 00:03:31,670 So the first edition of The Politics of the Police was published at a time of major social 34 00:03:31,670 --> 00:03:42,200 conflict with a focus on policing that had not really been the case up until that point. 35 00:03:42,590 --> 00:03:48,290 Since the early part of the 20th century, even sometime in the 19th century, 36 00:03:48,770 --> 00:03:56,299 there had been a kind of what have been described as a sort of golden age of policing in the immediate post-war period, 37 00:03:56,300 --> 00:04:02,540 which mythical or otherwise was clearly not the case by the time we were into the 1980s. 38 00:04:03,200 --> 00:04:17,720 So it was a fractious time in policing. It was the first textbook or the first attempt to provide a textbook like book about the police in Britain. 39 00:04:17,990 --> 00:04:25,730 But really it's about the English police because it has so much to say about Northern Ireland, Scotland or even Wales. 40 00:04:27,740 --> 00:04:34,910 But it was Robert's attempt to bring together all that was written about the police up until that point. 41 00:04:35,510 --> 00:04:44,450 And in 1985, Robert says that pretty much everything that was written about the police in England and most of 42 00:04:44,450 --> 00:04:49,490 what had been written about the police in English was included in the bibliography of that book. 43 00:04:49,730 --> 00:04:54,830 It was possible to have read everything about the police. That is now impossible. 44 00:04:54,950 --> 00:05:01,610 I think there may be maybe one or two people in the room for the capacity to do that, but it's the amount of research which is coming out. 45 00:05:01,710 --> 00:05:06,990 Policing now is so extensive that it's I would say it's actually practically impossible 46 00:05:06,990 --> 00:05:11,730 to read everything about the police that is even being published at the moment. 47 00:05:12,780 --> 00:05:19,290 So that was a that was where it sort of started there. So the second edition came out in 1992. 48 00:05:20,580 --> 00:05:25,950 By that time, there had been some significant changes and that kind of lost. 49 00:05:26,010 --> 00:05:30,840 The political politics around policing in general had subsided. 50 00:05:31,200 --> 00:05:34,050 The Conservatives had cooled a little bit on the police. 51 00:05:36,600 --> 00:05:41,550 The third edition came out in 2000 and now moved to Oxford University Press from from Harvester. 52 00:05:42,210 --> 00:05:52,500 And there were a number of major transformations that were occurring in in in the police and also in the study of policing with some challenges, 53 00:05:52,500 --> 00:05:58,350 particularly coming in around the observation that private policing, 54 00:05:58,350 --> 00:06:04,770 that policing was much more plural than the than the first two editions of the Politics of the Police that really recognised 55 00:06:05,310 --> 00:06:11,820 policing being provided by a very wide range of different kinds of providers in the in the public and in the private sector. 56 00:06:12,360 --> 00:06:21,810 But by 2000, there was something of a consensus around policing with a big, major, significant focus on policing as crime control. 57 00:06:23,820 --> 00:06:33,750 The 2010 edition, the fourth edition, emphasised the importance of understanding police in their social and economic context, 58 00:06:33,750 --> 00:06:38,220 particularly the persistence of the entrenchment of social inequality. 59 00:06:39,180 --> 00:06:53,490 And what Robert identified as the emergence of a neoliberal political economy, of deregulation, and of a kind of laissez faire politics. 60 00:06:54,900 --> 00:07:00,150 So that's 2010. I guess about two years ago, 61 00:07:00,150 --> 00:07:04,620 Robert contacted me and also James sceptically to ask whether we would be interested in 62 00:07:05,040 --> 00:07:10,470 working with him on the fifth edition of The Politics of the Police and What We Parties, 63 00:07:10,980 --> 00:07:16,830 which was the sort of thing you do when you offered an opportunity like that to work on this amazing book. 64 00:07:18,720 --> 00:07:28,410 And it is amazing book. And lots of people have written reviews of it and sort of commentaries on it over the years, and it was a great honour. 65 00:07:29,190 --> 00:07:38,220 But there are some significant weaknesses in the fourth edition, despite the recognition of the importance of plural policing. 66 00:07:39,120 --> 00:07:47,370 Really the whole area of privatisation and policing is it's talked about in the previous edition and the people's last two editions, 67 00:07:48,030 --> 00:07:50,399 but perhaps not to the extent that it was required, 68 00:07:50,400 --> 00:07:57,780 given the debates which had really overtaken the field in the early in the late 1990 and early 2000. 69 00:07:59,460 --> 00:08:05,760 So that was a gap was needed to be filled. Less was said about militarisation than perhaps should have been. 70 00:08:07,020 --> 00:08:11,130 It tends to focus on the uniformed policing function. 71 00:08:11,550 --> 00:08:19,530 Not very much is said about, but not as much as could be said about the detective function and less still 72 00:08:19,530 --> 00:08:24,450 about high policing the sort of intelligence based sort of covert policing, 73 00:08:24,450 --> 00:08:29,520 informal surveillance, intelligence gathering, undercover policing. 74 00:08:30,750 --> 00:08:33,780 It's very English. It's a very English book. 75 00:08:35,520 --> 00:08:41,249 So much less is said than could be said about the continental model and the origins of 76 00:08:41,250 --> 00:08:47,960 understandings of policing the code and prior to the beginning of the 19th century. 77 00:08:47,970 --> 00:08:51,960 So the models of policing in continental Europe, 78 00:08:54,330 --> 00:09:00,570 very little was said in in previous editions about colonial policing and how the British model travelled overseas. 79 00:09:02,340 --> 00:09:13,560 And less was said than would be optimal about the emergence of transnational policing and the particular challenges in understanding police work, 80 00:09:13,710 --> 00:09:19,830 which emerge as the power to police begins to migrate beyond the boundaries of the nation state. 81 00:09:21,630 --> 00:09:28,230 And what that means for for domestic policing and also for policing more broadly. 82 00:09:29,940 --> 00:09:33,030 So that brings us to the chapter itself. 83 00:09:35,100 --> 00:09:40,140 So what I do, first of all, just to say something about the core argument of the politics of the police. 84 00:09:42,000 --> 00:09:48,720 So the core argument of this book, which has remained consistent throughout all its editions and is very much part of, 85 00:09:49,740 --> 00:09:58,140 I suppose, the, the the education that Tiggy and I had doing our PhDs at the London School of Economics when Robert was there. 86 00:09:58,740 --> 00:10:04,950 And we sort of, you know, we took in the politics of the. In a sense with our doctor or mother's milk. 87 00:10:07,110 --> 00:10:10,890 It's the course of glycemic story, 88 00:10:11,640 --> 00:10:21,510 and policing is the aspect of social control that identify identifying and rectifying conflict and 89 00:10:21,510 --> 00:10:28,260 achieved through surveillance and the use of legitimate violence or coercive force to impose sanctions. 90 00:10:30,060 --> 00:10:37,170 So the heart of the policing task than to paradox is the first that the use of coercive 91 00:10:37,170 --> 00:10:46,950 force or physical violence is a morally dubious means to achieve the goods of peace, 92 00:10:47,040 --> 00:10:54,990 order and tranquillity. So the way to reduce violence is by through the use of violence is paradoxical. 93 00:10:56,940 --> 00:11:04,679 And the resolution of what Robert refers to as the perpetual scandal caused by the deployment of this diabolical 94 00:11:04,680 --> 00:11:11,400 power is resolved by the claim that the police represent the democratic will of the people and the rule of law, 95 00:11:12,090 --> 00:11:19,200 so that the use of coercive force, the use of violence, is legitimated by its rootedness in democratic processes. 96 00:11:21,450 --> 00:11:26,760 The second paradox is that not all that is policing lies with the police. 97 00:11:27,600 --> 00:11:34,410 And although the police stand as romantic symbols of crime control and the sources of order and community, 98 00:11:35,370 --> 00:11:43,290 in actual fact, those sources of order and safety lie to a large extent beyond the ambit of the police. 99 00:11:45,030 --> 00:11:52,919 They lie in the political economy and culture of society, or as maintains a complex web of the family, 100 00:11:52,920 --> 00:11:56,520 of the social institutions, other kinds of policing functions. 101 00:11:56,520 --> 00:12:07,139 It's not all about the police. So the politics of the police in a just society should be geared towards enhancing informal social control and 102 00:12:07,140 --> 00:12:13,440 minimising the need to resort to police intervention so that when they do respond to occurrences of crime and disorder, 103 00:12:14,400 --> 00:12:19,230 their intervention is understood to be fair, effective and legitimate. 104 00:12:21,870 --> 00:12:28,799 So these assertions give rise to a wide range of questions that are covered in the book, such as the meaning of fairness, effectiveness, 105 00:12:28,800 --> 00:12:36,210 and the legitimacy of the ways in which the police power can be held accountable to the people that it purports to serve, 106 00:12:37,620 --> 00:12:40,740 and about the nature of the political processes that govern policing. 107 00:12:42,900 --> 00:12:52,650 So what we tried to do in this particular chapter is to move beyond an exploration of policing in the domestic context, 108 00:12:54,240 --> 00:13:00,930 in like localities, to try to understand the globalisation of policing and its implications for the politics of the police in Britain. 109 00:13:02,940 --> 00:13:09,930 In 1985, when the politics of the police was first published, its subject was conceived of almost exclusively in domestic terms. 110 00:13:11,400 --> 00:13:18,630 The sources of crime and insecurity and disorder were understood to be local and when there was a discussion of travelling criminals, 111 00:13:19,020 --> 00:13:26,129 this was usually to refer to urban violence in London and Manchester and and Birmingham, 112 00:13:26,130 --> 00:13:31,590 travelling out to the shires that was often referred to today's county lines. 113 00:13:34,470 --> 00:13:40,920 Consequently, most discussions of policing in previous editions were either explicitly or implicitly concerned with local policing, 114 00:13:41,280 --> 00:13:47,250 with a limited debate about arguments for and against the creation of a national police force. 115 00:13:49,410 --> 00:13:58,590 35 years on, much has changed and the policing agenda is now much more evidently transnational from disrupting organised crime and terrorism, 116 00:13:59,520 --> 00:14:08,130 managing mega events, sporting and cultural events, responding to transnational disasters, searching for people missing overseas. 117 00:14:09,060 --> 00:14:13,290 The varieties of police work mirror the transnational possibilities of everyday life, 118 00:14:15,210 --> 00:14:19,620 and the political responses to the globalisation of social ordering have had a profound 119 00:14:19,620 --> 00:14:24,810 impact on the architecture and métier of policing its organisational culture, 120 00:14:25,230 --> 00:14:34,860 priorities and processes. So what I'll speak about in the next sort of half an hour to 45 minutes is the development 121 00:14:34,860 --> 00:14:39,990 of policing agencies that operate in regional and global arenas beyond the nation state, 122 00:14:40,830 --> 00:14:48,930 the role of foreign police working overseas, the emergence of the Overseas Liaison Officer as a distinct policing specialism, 123 00:14:49,800 --> 00:14:56,900 and the impact of these developments on debates about national and local police capacity, accountability and control. 124 00:15:01,470 --> 00:15:02,250 The simplistic, 125 00:15:02,490 --> 00:15:09,750 functional explanation for the growth of transnational policing is that criminality is no longer constrained by the boundaries of the nation state. 126 00:15:10,830 --> 00:15:20,700 The global cops are needed to chase global robbers. The list of crimes which exemplifies this trend is very long. 127 00:15:20,940 --> 00:15:25,950 Transnational organised crime. The trade in toxic waste, drugs, guns, tobacco. 128 00:15:26,370 --> 00:15:29,910 Stolen artworks and antiquities. Endangered species. 129 00:15:31,440 --> 00:15:39,570 Modern slavery, financial crimes, fraud, money laundering, terrorism, cybercrime, online child exploitation and so on. 130 00:15:40,350 --> 00:15:49,140 The global reach of criminality, the argument goes, means that the long arm of the law should stretch well beyond local police force boundaries. 131 00:15:50,550 --> 00:15:53,310 And there is a kernel of truth to this argument. 132 00:15:53,700 --> 00:16:01,830 The 21st century is much more globally connected than any previous area, and you can see this in economic and political and social spheres. 133 00:16:01,860 --> 00:16:16,530 We all know about globalisation. The chapter includes data on intercontinental travel, intercontinental movement of goods and services, migration, 134 00:16:17,550 --> 00:16:24,560 the growth of the internet, instantaneous communications, the use of computers to enable financial markets and so on. 135 00:16:24,570 --> 00:16:32,879 All of those things clearly mean that the possibilities for transnational crime of various different kinds are more extensive. 136 00:16:32,880 --> 00:16:40,010 And so there is, as I say, a logic to this functionalist argument about transnational policing. 137 00:16:42,060 --> 00:16:49,140 But we think that the recent expansion of transnational policing is not simply a functional response to transnational organised crime. 138 00:16:51,360 --> 00:17:03,000 To start, transnational policing is not new. The arguments that led to the creation of Interpol and the United Nations police capacity, 139 00:17:03,450 --> 00:17:12,030 but first articulated in the 19th century when the moral panics of the folk devils were international anarchism or the white slave trade. 140 00:17:13,590 --> 00:17:17,310 Got to talk about travelling criminals in the in the 1890s. 141 00:17:19,080 --> 00:17:25,319 Moreover, the European Colonial Project established a global network of policing that was rooted 142 00:17:25,320 --> 00:17:31,020 in the metropolis but spread across the British Empire and indeed other empires. 143 00:17:31,650 --> 00:17:37,500 So my last empirical work was on the policing of the Caribbean, where most of the Caribbean, 144 00:17:38,070 --> 00:17:47,550 the English speaking Caribbean territories have a policing model, which is a kind of replica and fractal replica of of the British policing model. 145 00:17:47,580 --> 00:17:55,290 Most senior commanders in the West Indies are trained in at the UK training centres. 146 00:17:55,290 --> 00:18:04,350 They have uniforms, the lot of them. The Royal Police Force is the Royal Barbados Police Force, the Royal St Vincent and the Grenadines and so on. 147 00:18:04,890 --> 00:18:13,590 And that was a network of policing, which was a transnational network where all the senior officers were British or sometimes Irish police officers, 148 00:18:13,590 --> 00:18:20,370 sometimes from elsewhere in the colonies. And the local police were drawn from the locality or maybe moved from one island to another. 149 00:18:21,000 --> 00:18:25,490 Policing has been transnational, probably even since its very origins, 150 00:18:26,160 --> 00:18:31,830 and certainly ideas about policing have travelled around from the middle of the 19th century onwards. 151 00:18:33,090 --> 00:18:38,909 So the idea that globalisation, this kind of late, modern globalisation, 152 00:18:38,910 --> 00:18:43,260 has caused transnational policing just doesn't add up to it doesn't stand scrutiny. 153 00:18:44,820 --> 00:18:53,190 In our view, transnational policing is and its growth is better understood as a change as a result of changes in patterns of governance. 154 00:18:54,300 --> 00:19:01,080 So the beginning of the modern period policing was largely a matter of parochial governance to the officers of the town or village, 155 00:19:01,080 --> 00:19:05,520 constable and justice of the Peace. And its focus was on local crime and disorder. 156 00:19:07,080 --> 00:19:10,740 That shifted in the 19th century as the police, along with other branches of government, 157 00:19:11,400 --> 00:19:19,020 became more important to the international internal social order, the modern nation state competing in the international state system. 158 00:19:20,700 --> 00:19:29,640 After World War Two, the trans nationalisation of policing intensified instead with the globalisation of politics, economy and society. 159 00:19:30,210 --> 00:19:39,780 If you think about the emergence of the supranational, the transnational institutions which emerged after the the Second World War, 160 00:19:39,780 --> 00:19:49,470 I think it's actually analytically more convincing to think of policing as being in step with the globalisation of governance. 161 00:19:49,710 --> 00:19:57,390 United Nations and its agencies. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the WTO, World Customs Organisations. 162 00:19:57,660 --> 00:20:06,630 And also the growth of regional organisations like. The European Union will play a role in the emergence of global and pan continental policing. 163 00:20:08,100 --> 00:20:11,610 Also, non-state actors play a pivotal, pivotal role in global governance, 164 00:20:12,180 --> 00:20:18,960 including domestic and international non-governmental organisations, multinational corporations and financial institutions, 165 00:20:19,470 --> 00:20:24,629 which are arguably more powerful and more important than many, if not all, 166 00:20:24,630 --> 00:20:29,640 governments, and they control a vast movement of vast quantities of capital. 167 00:20:32,010 --> 00:20:37,139 So understanding globalisation draws attention to the sense that many of the problems facing police 168 00:20:37,140 --> 00:20:43,680 organisations operating at any level stem from the consequences of shifting flows of capital, 169 00:20:44,130 --> 00:20:52,800 of employment opportunities and of people. And although debates about transnational policing equates the police role with crime control, 170 00:20:53,760 --> 00:21:00,480 there are also transnational order, maintenance and service functions as our own domestic policing. 171 00:21:01,950 --> 00:21:06,990 The most obvious case is in relation to contributing to public order in post-conflict situations. 172 00:21:07,770 --> 00:21:18,210 In post-conflict situations where, for example, in UN missions, the UN blue helmets are followed by UN blue berets, 173 00:21:18,690 --> 00:21:27,810 formed police, something like 17,000 police officers working fully under a United Nations banner in failed and failing states. 174 00:21:29,700 --> 00:21:34,170 But a really interesting example, and there's very little work on this, is the police. 175 00:21:34,320 --> 00:21:38,220 The transnational policing role in the case of a major national natural disaster. 176 00:21:39,600 --> 00:21:50,760 So unless as I say this, I don't think as any scholarly research or by little anyway, on the 2004 Asian tsunami, the Boxing Day tsunami, 177 00:21:51,480 --> 00:21:54,810 which we think was the largest international police operation in history, 178 00:21:56,220 --> 00:22:02,250 with around 700 police officers and staff from 30 countries supported by Interpol. 179 00:22:02,790 --> 00:22:06,480 And over a two year period, the police identified more than 3000 bodies, 180 00:22:07,140 --> 00:22:13,140 assisted with the recovery of bodies and repatriation of those investigative victims, last known movements. 181 00:22:14,550 --> 00:22:21,300 So the police role in dealing with sudden death, which is commonplace in the domestic realm, when you think about who do you call? 182 00:22:22,860 --> 00:22:30,180 It's the police, not Ghostbusters. It's it is an element of the role of international liaison officers who take responsibility 183 00:22:31,170 --> 00:22:35,490 for dealing with the aftermath of citizens from their countries who die overseas. 184 00:22:39,030 --> 00:22:45,480 I don't have time to talk about the kind of the ebb and flow and the arguments for and against the kind of globalisation thesis. 185 00:22:46,200 --> 00:22:54,870 But clearly globalisation is not a one directional ever moving flow, as we can see from, 186 00:22:55,230 --> 00:23:01,380 you know, two words Trump, Brexit and can say any more than that he's done. 187 00:23:02,250 --> 00:23:07,050 Thank you. So that's the kind of the context. 188 00:23:08,910 --> 00:23:12,820 Transnational policing is a growing subfield. 189 00:23:12,840 --> 00:23:17,760 It really only began as an academic subject of study in the late 1980s. 190 00:23:18,360 --> 00:23:20,450 But the work of people like Michael Anderson, 191 00:23:20,460 --> 00:23:27,870 if a middleman John Bennion and colleagues publishing significant works in the very late eighties and early 1990s, 192 00:23:28,970 --> 00:23:35,820 one of the first observations is that there was by that point evidence of a qualitative shift in the nature of police work, 193 00:23:36,750 --> 00:23:42,120 and it was clear that there was a growing global presence of police officers working outside of the countries 194 00:23:42,120 --> 00:23:53,280 that they would normally work in and research on airports and seaports and the regulation of human mobility. 195 00:23:53,760 --> 00:24:00,540 So bringing the kind of the wider police family of customs and immigration officers, 196 00:24:00,540 --> 00:24:06,599 perhaps siblings and others in security and intelligence services within within that within the ambit 197 00:24:06,600 --> 00:24:14,970 began to began to be clear that there really was an emerging a growing subject of academic study. 198 00:24:16,350 --> 00:24:18,230 Malcolm Anderson said there seems to be, quote, 199 00:24:18,240 --> 00:24:25,590 a gradual transfer of internal and external security control from the nation state to international institutions. 200 00:24:26,160 --> 00:24:26,969 That was an observation. 201 00:24:26,970 --> 00:24:40,799 In 1995 the US police were studied by Ethan Nadelmann in 1993 and that was his doctorate and he argued that wasn't really trans nationalisation. 202 00:24:40,800 --> 00:24:44,790 This was the Americanisation of policing in within the US sphere of influence, 203 00:24:45,240 --> 00:24:49,980 starting with Latin America and then heading to the east and then to the Middle East, 204 00:24:50,640 --> 00:24:56,370 where the kind of an Americanisation of techniques and methods of policing which 205 00:24:56,370 --> 00:24:59,670 were being pioneered and developed right at the very boundaries of what was. 206 00:24:59,740 --> 00:25:07,750 Lawford at that time. The book, The Chapter contains a typology of transnational policing, 207 00:25:08,920 --> 00:25:16,690 which attempts to look at the way in which policing is transforming it at all socio spatial levels. 208 00:25:17,650 --> 00:25:27,420 So you can see the emergence of global institutions, the highest level of associated high socio spatial level international. 209 00:25:27,430 --> 00:25:39,820 So relationships amongst police from sovereign states, regional, subregional, national and also the the globalisation of local policing. 210 00:25:40,870 --> 00:25:45,440 One of the things that we kind of struggle with in the book is how do you kind of 211 00:25:45,520 --> 00:25:50,680 is it possible to kind of to make an entire book based on the English police, 212 00:25:51,220 --> 00:25:55,330 really transnational and comparative? Actually, that is actually not possible. 213 00:25:55,900 --> 00:26:05,080 It comes through the book, but it's it's basically can't be done in a single, you know, 130,000 word sort of epic volume, except. 214 00:26:05,170 --> 00:26:06,670 So it would be a much bigger project, I think. 215 00:26:07,090 --> 00:26:15,130 So what we settled on was trying to understand the impact of transnational analyzation on debates around English policing. 216 00:26:16,330 --> 00:26:26,500 So that's kind of where we set up an example I'm sure will be familiar to everybody in the globalisation of local policing is the the Skripal affair. 217 00:26:28,780 --> 00:26:32,530 415 on Sunday, the 4th of March 2018. Remember, 218 00:26:32,530 --> 00:26:39,220 the public called the Wiltshire Police to report that a middle aged man and a young woman slumped unconscious on a park bench in a central Salisbury, 219 00:26:40,120 --> 00:26:48,400 a medieval cathedral city in the south of England. The view was perhaps they were just sort of drunk or something that had been on drugs. 220 00:26:49,240 --> 00:26:55,480 The initial police response revealed that Mr. Sergei Skripal, a former Russian double agent and his daughter had been poisoned. 221 00:26:56,170 --> 00:27:01,329 It was later discovered to be by Novichok, a military grade nerve agent, within 24 hours. 222 00:27:01,330 --> 00:27:10,180 But it started as a routine call to the local shire constabulary turned into a matter of national and international security. 223 00:27:11,200 --> 00:27:17,080 Wheelchair constabulary was very soon overwhelmed by the task that confronted them, 224 00:27:18,520 --> 00:27:22,810 and they soon passed operational responsibility to other parts of the British police network, 225 00:27:23,230 --> 00:27:26,350 notably the counter-terrorism command of the London Metropolitan Police, 226 00:27:27,370 --> 00:27:32,670 but also engaged the Royal Marines, the R.A.F., the COBRA Emergency Committee of Government. 227 00:27:34,540 --> 00:27:41,649 Am I fired? Am I? Six Q Subsequent investigation involve crime scene, forensic analysis, 228 00:27:41,650 --> 00:27:47,020 chemical weapons inspectors and detective work in the UK and Russia a rare but 229 00:27:47,020 --> 00:27:52,750 not unique example of the glow of a local impact of transnational criminality. 230 00:27:55,090 --> 00:27:59,920 The bulk of everyday local global linkages. I mean, police officers, it's much more mundane. 231 00:28:00,370 --> 00:28:04,270 The paradigm example of transnational policing concerns drug smuggling. 232 00:28:06,790 --> 00:28:14,620 In England, we don't grow so much coca leaf poppy and hemp. 233 00:28:15,490 --> 00:28:17,620 They grow like weeds and in many parts of the world. 234 00:28:17,860 --> 00:28:26,410 And so drugs, production, importation, supply, distribution is an inherently transnational business. 235 00:28:27,130 --> 00:28:35,470 And even where there is local manufacture, it also tends often to involve transnational supply chains. 236 00:28:36,600 --> 00:28:44,350 I mean, what happened after Brexit? So whether we're looking at drugs, 237 00:28:44,350 --> 00:28:50,409 but also people smuggling and human trafficking to understand the distribution of 238 00:28:50,410 --> 00:28:56,590 supply of narcotic and psychotropic drugs requires a kind of a transnational mindset. 239 00:28:58,060 --> 00:29:06,520 It needs to be a more intense phrase indigenous but globally aware. 240 00:29:07,390 --> 00:29:13,600 And when you talk to domestic drug squad commanders, well, 241 00:29:13,780 --> 00:29:18,070 talk about not just what's happening in their locality, but it's transnational connectedness. 242 00:29:18,730 --> 00:29:27,010 And that is particularly true, I think, in the West Indies, where small islands are transshipment points. 243 00:29:27,010 --> 00:29:29,229 And so the drugs are coming from somewhere. 244 00:29:29,230 --> 00:29:35,260 They are not in for a short period of time before they leave, usually arriving by small boat, leaving by air. 245 00:29:35,830 --> 00:29:42,100 And so this is a transnational business the that the Caribbean Drug Squad commander has. 246 00:29:42,550 --> 00:29:46,360 So perhaps three or maybe even four mobile phones, one from the Americans, one from the British. 247 00:29:46,780 --> 00:29:54,310 Is that a domestic in a local police force? And this one for his wife and kids or her husband and children, usually men. 248 00:29:55,120 --> 00:29:58,660 And so that kind of the transnational ization. 249 00:30:01,050 --> 00:30:05,940 Of policing is linked to the trans nationalisation of the problems facing police in this context. 250 00:30:10,920 --> 00:30:12,930 So that's the globalisation of local policing. 251 00:30:13,860 --> 00:30:24,180 At the same time, although the debates around do, do we need a national police force in Britain has kind of petered out. 252 00:30:24,540 --> 00:30:29,609 Although I did notice that there was an article on the National Crime Agency today 253 00:30:29,610 --> 00:30:34,890 which described the chief officer as the most senior officer in British policing, 254 00:30:35,460 --> 00:30:41,850 which is usually reserved has historically been reserved for the High Commissioner, Metropolitan Police. 255 00:30:41,970 --> 00:30:45,750 So maybe something else, maybe that signals a change in it. 256 00:30:46,630 --> 00:30:52,650 And so national level policing capacity is developed in many countries alongside the globalisation of local policing, 257 00:30:52,830 --> 00:31:01,890 but varies widely across jurisdictions in the UK in in in, in Britain. 258 00:31:02,640 --> 00:31:07,050 There's been a gradual accumulation of power in national agencies. 259 00:31:07,590 --> 00:31:14,760 So most domestic policing is undertaken by the 43 police forces in England and Wales. 260 00:31:16,470 --> 00:31:22,770 A number of national specialist agencies like the British Transport Police finish its fence. 261 00:31:22,770 --> 00:31:27,540 Police and it's a long list of those is a really interesting book, if you like. 262 00:31:28,860 --> 00:31:34,260 Directories and dictionaries, which I do. The Almanac of British Policing. 263 00:31:34,500 --> 00:31:39,660 And it's just sort of a sort of list of all the all the agencies very, very, very, very diverse. 264 00:31:42,240 --> 00:31:50,790 Since the 1990s, there's been a building on on regional crime squads formulated in the 1960s into, 265 00:31:50,880 --> 00:31:53,970 first of all, a National Crime Squad and National Crime Intelligence Service. 266 00:31:54,570 --> 00:32:05,040 These were amalgamated in 2005 to create a serious organised crime agency and then reorganised and renamed the National Crime Agency in 2013. 267 00:32:06,900 --> 00:32:13,080 And that has responsibility for, well, as it says on the tin, serious and organised crime. 268 00:32:15,840 --> 00:32:18,540 The impetus for nationalisation comes from a number of sources. 269 00:32:19,500 --> 00:32:24,450 First, there's a belief that local police forces lack the capacity and expertise to deal with organised, 270 00:32:25,290 --> 00:32:30,330 serious organised criminal activity and that with transnational connections in the Wiltshire case as a sort of an example of that. 271 00:32:32,700 --> 00:32:40,890 So national police forces have dedicated units for cyber crime, financial crime, online child exploitation, modern slavery and so on. 272 00:32:43,680 --> 00:32:49,469 Second, centralised national hubs have been created to respond to the rapid growth of 273 00:32:49,470 --> 00:32:54,600 demands from overseas police requesting information about suspects wanted overseas. 274 00:32:55,380 --> 00:33:03,160 So prior to the creation of these national units, if you wanted to know whether you're a foreign police organisation, 275 00:33:03,160 --> 00:33:12,270 you wanted to know whether a suspect was abroad. By and large, you would have to engage with 43 separate police forces in England and Wales. 276 00:33:12,780 --> 00:33:16,290 The creation of a I mean, that was the Interpol network, of course, 277 00:33:16,290 --> 00:33:25,470 but essentially what one of the key functions of the National Crime Agency is to provide effectively a clearinghouse for requests from overseas, 278 00:33:25,860 --> 00:33:34,020 both incoming and and outgoing. It also intersects with the trend of integrating policing with other law enforcement agencies. 279 00:33:34,620 --> 00:33:40,949 So national level policing creates a crucial linkage with international policing systems. 280 00:33:40,950 --> 00:33:45,270 So it's training, development, selection and posting of officers overseas. 281 00:33:46,350 --> 00:33:51,899 So whereas once police officers would have expected to work most of their career at one particular 282 00:33:51,900 --> 00:33:58,379 organisation or to perhaps have moved around a couple of local police forces during their career, 283 00:33:58,380 --> 00:34:07,110 particular if they were ambitious and being promoted. But now it would be quite common for police officers to have a posting in a 284 00:34:07,110 --> 00:34:12,360 national agency and then gain the skills of what you might call a police diplomat. 285 00:34:16,950 --> 00:34:25,019 There's no standard model for national policing hubs, but in all cases their role is to link domestic police agencies within a nation state linked 286 00:34:25,020 --> 00:34:29,490 to police forces in other countries and provide a link to global and regional agencies. 287 00:34:31,620 --> 00:34:35,040 So that's the local and the national regional policing agencies. 288 00:34:36,270 --> 00:34:45,899 So the emergence of regional, economic and political blocs has been occurring for some time. 289 00:34:45,900 --> 00:34:51,240 The European Union clearly being the most but one of the most advanced of those, perhaps the most advanced. 290 00:34:52,260 --> 00:34:58,370 So you have Europol, which has emerged in that context, but there are similar organisations elsewhere. 291 00:34:58,370 --> 00:35:04,860 There's Africa all. Every poll, action poll career poll, which has emerged in recent years. 292 00:35:06,390 --> 00:35:13,860 This also reflects the sense that domestic policing capacity can't respond to the terms nationalisation of crime and insecurity. 293 00:35:14,610 --> 00:35:20,250 And so these regional entities are being created to share information about criminal threats, 294 00:35:20,640 --> 00:35:28,410 to develop a strategic response, to bring officers together, to develop strategic, tactical, operational capacity. 295 00:35:29,340 --> 00:35:34,140 Some regional entities also have shared databases, training programs, conferences and so on. 296 00:35:36,000 --> 00:35:42,000 The European Union can be regarded as one of the most advanced examples of an emerging system of supranational 297 00:35:42,000 --> 00:35:48,420 governance in which the sovereignty of individual member states is being pooled in certain spheres. 298 00:35:49,770 --> 00:35:54,630 The idea of European police cooperation goes back to the 19th century. 299 00:35:55,410 --> 00:35:58,560 The Congresses, which eventually led to the creation of Interpol. 300 00:36:00,600 --> 00:36:05,790 There were also numerous forms of bilateral police cooperation, exchanges and practices. 301 00:36:06,210 --> 00:36:11,670 So, for example, the French Regional Brigade, two teams of mobile police, were established in 1907, 302 00:36:12,390 --> 00:36:21,330 which provides an opportunity for Francophone police officers from Luxembourg to have placements in French 303 00:36:21,330 --> 00:36:30,180 units with the idea of developing competencies within the French police and policing border zones today. 304 00:36:30,210 --> 00:36:35,160 Transnational police cooperation is an integral part of the European enlargement agenda, 305 00:36:36,120 --> 00:36:39,390 with the objective to create a common security and justice area. 306 00:36:39,690 --> 00:36:44,370 Strengthening regional cross-border cooperation between law enforcement agencies 307 00:36:44,370 --> 00:36:48,090 and judicial authorities in the fight against organised crime and corruption. 308 00:36:49,200 --> 00:36:54,120 That includes networking, mutual legal assistance, the transfer proceedings, 309 00:36:54,120 --> 00:36:58,710 request for extradition, joint investigation teams, witness protection and so on. 310 00:37:01,650 --> 00:37:08,160 I'm tempted to get into the detail of European policing, so perhaps keep everybody awake. 311 00:37:08,160 --> 00:37:12,360 I'll just skip over that a little bit. It's interesting, 312 00:37:12,810 --> 00:37:22,350 but complex Europol vote with saying a few words about probably the most advanced and ambitious attempt at Pan 313 00:37:22,350 --> 00:37:30,180 Continental Police cooperation fully integrated into the European Union following a Council decision decision in 2009, 314 00:37:31,110 --> 00:37:38,849 responsible for collecting and disseminating criminal intelligence as well as law enforcement cooperation specialist units, 315 00:37:38,850 --> 00:37:40,680 including an organised crime centre. 316 00:37:41,100 --> 00:37:50,970 The European Cybercrime Centre, established in 2013, Counter-Terrorism Centre, established in 2006, sometimes characterised as a European FBI. 317 00:37:51,270 --> 00:38:04,770 The agency has no enforcement powers but exists to enable cooperation among police agencies within the EU, irrespective of where we're looking. 318 00:38:04,770 --> 00:38:11,489 In terms of the emergence of PAN regional cooperation, the preference for informal cooperation, 319 00:38:11,490 --> 00:38:18,150 horizontal cooperation amongst police officers is one of the key findings from numerous studies of transnational policing. 320 00:38:22,560 --> 00:38:29,970 So there's a sort of there even where there exist extensive formal transnational policing arrangements, 321 00:38:31,470 --> 00:38:37,110 police officers tend to find ways of being able to cooperate horizontally. 322 00:38:37,530 --> 00:38:43,769 And so this kind of raises interesting questions about the nature of governance as it moves outside 323 00:38:43,770 --> 00:38:50,880 of the purview of individual nation states having the capacity to know what their police are doing. 324 00:38:53,160 --> 00:38:59,760 A few words about global policing agencies. Interpol in the news a lot, just the last week or so or last few weeks. 325 00:39:02,040 --> 00:39:06,330 Interpol declares itself to be the world's largest international police organisation, 326 00:39:06,540 --> 00:39:11,430 the world's only global police organisation, and the world's most effective international policing body. 327 00:39:13,620 --> 00:39:16,890 It is without doubt, the leading global policing brand. 328 00:39:18,720 --> 00:39:21,780 The seeds of Interpol can be found in the latter part of the 19th century, 329 00:39:22,350 --> 00:39:29,969 which germinated at the first International Criminal Police Congress in Monaco in 1914 and came to fruition and the International 330 00:39:29,970 --> 00:39:38,430 Criminal Police Commission in 1929 based on an agreement among 22 European and US police chiefs and headquartered in Vienna. 331 00:39:40,260 --> 00:39:48,330 The Commission then annually in Vienna until 1938, on the eve of World War Two, when the Nazis assumed control. 332 00:39:48,780 --> 00:39:54,210 In 1942, the CPC fell completely into German control and relocated to Berlin. 333 00:39:56,520 --> 00:40:04,590 The post-war rebuilding was led by Belgium and in 1946 the IPCC moved to Paris and then later to Leon. 334 00:40:06,780 --> 00:40:11,940 The structure of Interpol has remained remarkably stable over the years of its existence. 335 00:40:13,250 --> 00:40:18,209 Interestingly, it's not a true inter-governmental organisation. 336 00:40:18,210 --> 00:40:24,000 An internal governmental organisation is one which is established by a treaty among nation states. 337 00:40:24,960 --> 00:40:34,380 Interpol is an organisation that was established as an agreement amongst police forces operating, if you like, below the level of the nation state. 338 00:40:36,480 --> 00:40:47,430 It is being given special status as an inter-governmental organisation by AU, although in its functioning it's actually a transnational network. 339 00:40:48,600 --> 00:40:53,010 Its status is facilitated by the fact that its structure mirrors that of a typical IOE. 340 00:40:53,550 --> 00:40:58,080 It has a permanent headquarters in Lille, a decision making body, the General Assembly, 341 00:40:58,500 --> 00:41:01,650 an administrative body of the General Secretariat and an executive committee. 342 00:41:02,940 --> 00:41:07,080 And it runs through National Central Bureau, which are nested within domestic police forces. 343 00:41:07,470 --> 00:41:13,260 So the international and CBSE are where the if you like, the work of Interpol gets done within the local police force. 344 00:41:14,640 --> 00:41:22,830 What's crucial is that Interpol has autonomy from the system of states because the police organisations, 345 00:41:22,830 --> 00:41:24,680 because of the police organisations that make up this, 346 00:41:25,620 --> 00:41:34,620 make up its membership attempts to create an international police force in the late 19th and early 20th century, 347 00:41:35,040 --> 00:41:42,060 founded on the problem of national sovereignty as it was subjected to by national governments who thought it would weaken national sovereignty. 348 00:41:43,290 --> 00:41:49,830 But the way that this can be finessed is, if you like, is for policing to be seen as something disconnected from politics, 349 00:41:50,340 --> 00:41:55,140 but it's concerned simply with the technical matter of responding to a crime. 350 00:41:57,780 --> 00:42:10,470 I won't say much more about how an. Paul works. Another crucial but interesting UN global policing agency is the UN police. 351 00:42:11,050 --> 00:42:18,450 So I misspoke earlier because about 13,000 police officers from 90 countries deployed in 18 police missions. 352 00:42:20,490 --> 00:42:26,400 The UN police division, as it exists today with ambitious development plans and coordination with Interpol to create, 353 00:42:26,940 --> 00:42:30,899 quote, a global policing doctrine comes very close to the vision. 354 00:42:30,900 --> 00:42:39,690 First sketched more than a century central to understanding transnational policing 355 00:42:39,690 --> 00:42:45,210 is the role of the international liaison officer or the Overseas Liaison Officer. 356 00:42:45,390 --> 00:42:56,700 The ILO, this specialism really emerged first amongst the USA and has been taken up by many European 357 00:42:56,700 --> 00:43:01,560 countries and is now something which seems to be happening almost all over the world. 358 00:43:03,630 --> 00:43:12,990 So the liaison officers are to be a bigger describes them as being like station masters in a railway system, 359 00:43:13,230 --> 00:43:17,190 directing and shunting information to where it is needed as quickly as possible. 360 00:43:18,390 --> 00:43:27,240 And they can be posted to other countries within the region, particularly in specialist areas such as counter-terrorism or organised crime, 361 00:43:28,050 --> 00:43:37,170 posted far outside the region, seconded to regional agencies like Europol or seconded to global agencies such as the UN or Interpol. 362 00:43:39,090 --> 00:43:43,440 The liaison officer is a kind of police diplomat. 363 00:43:43,560 --> 00:43:50,220 Typically, police liaison officers will work out of an overseas embassy or high commission. 364 00:43:51,000 --> 00:43:58,830 So where the military attache and the trade attache well established aspects of the diplomatic mission, 365 00:44:00,510 --> 00:44:03,810 the law enforcement or policing attache, is now very much a fixture. 366 00:44:04,260 --> 00:44:09,030 And so my work on Caribbean policing, I mean, one of the the groups that I talked to, 367 00:44:09,030 --> 00:44:19,200 were they the UK liaison officers who had offices in the in the high commissions or embassies, worked, if you like, 368 00:44:19,200 --> 00:44:28,620 under the authority of the ambassador, could only take action with the authority enforcement action with the authority of the local police, 369 00:44:29,190 --> 00:44:33,060 have some accountability back to their home police force. 370 00:44:33,420 --> 00:44:37,200 But questions of accountability were blurred. 371 00:44:37,380 --> 00:44:43,220 Where really, I would say there's no global survey of the number of liaison officers. 372 00:44:44,550 --> 00:44:52,980 There's a system whereby it's Dini and John in 2010 identified 650 liaison officers in 54 countries. 373 00:44:54,540 --> 00:45:00,300 We've done a bit of arithmetic, and there certainly is many more than that today. 374 00:45:00,690 --> 00:45:05,400 I mean, certainly well over a thousand police liaison officers. 375 00:45:07,170 --> 00:45:12,060 France, for example, has a 130, Australia has 80, South Africa 30. 376 00:45:13,260 --> 00:45:20,130 The China Daily reports the Chinese police deploy 63 liaison officers overseas and there also Nordic liaison officers. 377 00:45:20,560 --> 00:45:28,590 It worked together to represent the Nordic region. So the Asian officers, our first point of contact for visiting police officers, 378 00:45:28,590 --> 00:45:37,260 their clearinghouses for information and they like the sort of oil and glue of the transnational policing system. 379 00:45:37,260 --> 00:45:45,750 Or maybe a nicer metaphor is the idea of of the contemporary policing system as being like a patchwork quilt. 380 00:45:46,530 --> 00:45:53,520 This is a city that for patches of different sizes and shape different, different layers. 381 00:45:54,270 --> 00:46:03,270 And in that metaphor, the liaison officer is is the sort of stitching that is stitching together all the pieces they sit at, 382 00:46:03,270 --> 00:46:09,570 the margins of the edges of domestic policing, but are increasingly central to transnational policing. 383 00:46:10,380 --> 00:46:19,980 And they are snitches and rival rivalries amongst officers. They recognise one another is as part of a sort of a transnational law enforcement elite, 384 00:46:21,090 --> 00:46:25,710 a bane of the multilingual understanding about working across languages and cultures. 385 00:46:26,130 --> 00:46:35,250 We can cross different systems and particularly working in these horizontal trust space relationships to allow information to flow, 386 00:46:36,420 --> 00:46:44,960 to enable things to get done. So what we are seeing is a sort of transnational liaison ships, 387 00:46:45,770 --> 00:46:50,810 signs of a new form of public governance that leave open the question of how 388 00:46:50,990 --> 00:46:55,250 transnational governance can be held to account by the global Commonwealth. 389 00:46:57,380 --> 00:47:05,060 So the question then is what does this what are the implications of this for the domestic politics of the police? 390 00:47:07,310 --> 00:47:13,070 Questions of accountability and national sovereignty can be answered theoretically by the contention that it's only 391 00:47:13,070 --> 00:47:19,370 possible for police officers to use coercive and intrusive powers within their own geographical jurisdiction. 392 00:47:20,240 --> 00:47:23,510 You could say the very definition of police power, of state power, 393 00:47:24,230 --> 00:47:31,400 the possession of specialist powers to use legitimate coercive force within a given territory implies jurisdictional exclusivity. 394 00:47:33,170 --> 00:47:38,420 But there seems to be a bit of a gap here because policing resources are fragmented 395 00:47:38,720 --> 00:47:42,890 and therefore national authorities cannot dominate all external relations. 396 00:47:43,760 --> 00:47:49,460 And poor, small and poor states in particular have difficulties exercising sovereignty. 397 00:47:50,690 --> 00:47:55,730 So this sort of decentralised state model in which officers from different countries 398 00:47:56,270 --> 00:48:02,570 communicate directly with one another and in formal contexts become standard practice. 399 00:48:03,950 --> 00:48:10,610 So certainly the idea that the domestic police would have a monopoly on information, 400 00:48:12,770 --> 00:48:20,510 criminal intelligence simply is unsustainable because this information is flowing relatively freely across transnational boundaries. 401 00:48:21,380 --> 00:48:28,160 But what about the I think it was David Bailey who said the police are too government as the edge is to the knife. 402 00:48:29,030 --> 00:48:35,720 So what about the kind of cutting edge then of state power, the use of coercive force beyond national boundaries? 403 00:48:36,770 --> 00:48:41,959 Well, there clearly are documented instances where overseas police have either carried out or 404 00:48:41,960 --> 00:48:47,570 attempted to carry out arrests outside their jurisdiction without involving the local police. 405 00:48:49,010 --> 00:48:57,740 The most blatant examples concern the high policing activities concerned with terrorist activities or suspected involvement in terrorist activities. 406 00:48:59,090 --> 00:49:03,500 One of the most extraordinary cases is the is the case of Khalid El-Masri, 407 00:49:03,950 --> 00:49:14,120 a German citizen of Lebanese descent who was abducted by the Macedonian police in 2003, 408 00:49:15,500 --> 00:49:22,940 handed over to the US CIA, taken to the US salt pit where he was held for four months, tortured. 409 00:49:24,170 --> 00:49:29,480 And then the US government realised that it was a case of mistaken identity. 410 00:49:29,930 --> 00:49:39,650 The al-Masri was a different al-Masri and so returned him, not returned to him, but took him to Albania. 411 00:49:39,680 --> 00:49:49,970 But they just got off the side of the road. In 2012, the European Court of Human Rights determined that al-Masri had been detained, unlawfully, 412 00:49:50,510 --> 00:49:56,530 tortured and abused and criticised the Macedonian police for collaborating with the US secret programs. 413 00:49:58,760 --> 00:50:07,129 The US in the US courts, the government, the US government claimed state secrets privileged and the case was dismissed as an Alien Torts Act, 414 00:50:07,130 --> 00:50:10,010 which protects the US government from activities taken overseas. 415 00:50:11,720 --> 00:50:20,120 But I think understanding police power requires going beyond the idea of these sort of egregious instances of international 416 00:50:20,120 --> 00:50:27,110 police flying in and doing bad things of flying out against police liaison officers don't have formal arrest powers, 417 00:50:28,340 --> 00:50:33,680 but they don't need them. They can use coercive powers beyond the time, 418 00:50:33,700 --> 00:50:42,979 but beyond the nation state by what you might call remote control or governing at a distance through lawful routes, 419 00:50:42,980 --> 00:50:50,780 they can use available, available information and other resources to enable local police officers to undertake arrests on their behalf. 420 00:50:51,350 --> 00:50:58,040 It was very interesting watching the dynamics in the West Indies between the US police and the domestic police. 421 00:50:58,670 --> 00:51:08,629 The US police were understood to be more powerful, better trained, more resources and they didn't need to undertake enforcement activities. 422 00:51:08,630 --> 00:51:15,350 They just did over there. Over there. That's what that's happening. So. 423 00:51:20,660 --> 00:51:26,480 So while the system of accountability is mainly being structured according to national borders, 424 00:51:27,110 --> 00:51:30,860 policing is no longer a set of practices embedded in the sovereign nation state. 425 00:51:31,520 --> 00:51:37,670 And so we now need to be thinking about a and accountability structure, which should apply to all forms of policing, 426 00:51:38,180 --> 00:51:43,220 including those carried out by inter-governmental and supranational law enforcement agencies. 427 00:51:44,930 --> 00:51:50,299 And there are some solutions to this, but are actually powers in another chapter. 428 00:51:50,300 --> 00:51:56,180 So I'm going to break it off, you know, be available from all good bookshops in the spring. 429 00:51:56,870 --> 00:52:01,610 So to conclude, globalisation is reshaping the politics of the police. 430 00:52:03,110 --> 00:52:08,180 And although there have been interconnections among police officers from different parts of the world 431 00:52:08,540 --> 00:52:13,490 since the police emerged as an integral part of the machinery of governments in the 19th century, 432 00:52:14,660 --> 00:52:20,530 there is now a quantitative and qualitative shift from the end of the 20th century. 433 00:52:20,540 --> 00:52:25,999 The task of policing that had been seen for 200 years as a domestic matter was transformed into 434 00:52:26,000 --> 00:52:31,340 a political and policy issue that was widely perceived to be integral to global governance. 435 00:52:33,560 --> 00:52:42,770 So what we tried to do in this chapter is to examine how the transnational turn of phrase is shaping policing in local, 436 00:52:42,770 --> 00:52:50,180 national, regional and global spheres of activity. Global policing agencies have gathered strength in the second half of the 20th century. 437 00:52:53,540 --> 00:52:59,540 The idea of an international police force has old roots, but only became a reality under the aegis of the United Nations in 1960s. 438 00:52:59,930 --> 00:53:02,510 And it's now a very extensive policing capacity. 439 00:53:06,200 --> 00:53:12,440 Every region of the world now has some form of Pan Continental Police Organisation that provides cooperation, 440 00:53:12,470 --> 00:53:15,950 coordination and collaboration amongst numerous policing agencies. 441 00:53:17,060 --> 00:53:25,430 And a common policing doctrine provides interoperability and joint investigation and enforcement activities across entire continental regions. 442 00:53:27,080 --> 00:53:31,130 Debates about the case for and against the national police force of petered out, 443 00:53:31,580 --> 00:53:40,010 but have really been resolved by a such in the form of a national policing hub like politics. 444 00:53:40,340 --> 00:53:46,760 Policing is mostly a local matter and despite the growth of these global regional national police agencies, 445 00:53:47,180 --> 00:53:53,960 the overall majority of direct interaction between police and public is with uniformed officers on the roads and highways, 446 00:53:54,500 --> 00:53:57,950 and less frequently with plainclothes detectives and other specialists. 447 00:53:58,670 --> 00:54:04,760 Behind this interaction, however, is a far reaching change in the nature of police work. 448 00:54:05,180 --> 00:54:10,220 Today's street police to the introduction of information and communications technologies 449 00:54:10,580 --> 00:54:15,560 are now able to check suspect identities using mobile fingerprint readers, 450 00:54:16,490 --> 00:54:25,040 facial recognition software, automatic number plate readers and biometric means that link domestic with international databases. 451 00:54:25,760 --> 00:54:33,110 Local policing has been trans nationalised and global policing now reaches deep into local communities. 452 00:54:35,180 --> 00:54:39,170 These developments raise profound new questions about the relationship between state and citizen. 453 00:54:40,940 --> 00:54:48,740 Observers are critical of the democratic accountability deficits at national and European levels, with serious implications for local accountability. 454 00:54:50,270 --> 00:54:58,460 Local policing was proposed as a solution to the problems of burglary, theft and interpersonal violence social disorder in local communities. 455 00:54:59,060 --> 00:55:07,310 But what is the role of the domestic police officer when threats to life and property emanate from transnational organised crime and rogue states? 456 00:55:09,020 --> 00:55:10,099 In such circumstances, 457 00:55:10,100 --> 00:55:17,510 what kind of response can we expect from the local police and from newly created specialist agencies set up with the goal of keeping us safe? 458 00:55:18,920 --> 00:55:24,620 All the content that the suitable flows of terrorists and transnational organised criminals are the main thing. 459 00:55:25,160 --> 00:55:33,020 Could global policing prioritise more pressing threats such as environmental destruction, global warming, corporate crime? 460 00:55:34,130 --> 00:55:42,860 Perhaps worldwide policing should be thinking more carefully about its service role, whatever its aims and objectives. 461 00:55:42,860 --> 00:55:48,890 How do we know whether or not international policing agencies are effective or efficient or fair? 462 00:55:49,850 --> 00:55:55,490 On what criteria can we judge whether or not the billions that are being spent on global policing is money well spent? 463 00:55:57,230 --> 00:56:00,800 Transnational policing is growing in size, resources and ambition, 464 00:56:01,430 --> 00:56:09,710 enabled by advances in technology and by new laws and policies that are creating domestic and local linkages increasingly powerful, 465 00:56:10,070 --> 00:56:13,460 seen as indispensable domestic and international security in order maintenance. 466 00:56:14,270 --> 00:56:18,470 And while local policing is being shaped by global forces linked by national policing. 467 00:56:19,130 --> 00:56:26,840 Into transnational debates and expertise. As the central argument of the book suggests, 468 00:56:27,080 --> 00:56:31,969 the paradoxes of policing require a searching analysis of how police power can be held 469 00:56:31,970 --> 00:56:37,940 to account and through which the democratic processes the police should be governed. 470 00:56:38,360 --> 00:56:46,850 This was never an easy task, never an easy question. Even while policing was authorised and delivered in local communities by parish constables. 471 00:56:47,450 --> 00:56:52,790 Now that local policing is shaped, at least to some extent, by global forces, 472 00:56:53,480 --> 00:56:59,870 by what means can we be confident that the state's coercive and intrusive powers are deployed for the social good? 473 00:57:08,620 --> 00:57:13,640 Okay. Thank you. And perfectly timed. So somebody like to stop? 474 00:57:13,660 --> 00:57:13,960 Yes.