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Now your consciousness has been relegated to the margins for much of the 20th century,

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at least in the sciences, because as a couple of things, we put it on 45,

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all the research in the last 20 years of cognitive neuroscience demonstrate that very little of what occurs in the brain is actually conscious.

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Opening up a whole new area of investigation, which has been very fruitful for for dialogue between the humanities scholars in the sciences.

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And and our first speaker, it is one of the scholars who pioneered this field,

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and he's Professor Lars Ward, distinguished professor of psychiatry, neurosciences and psychology at UCSD.

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And he has published over 490 papers on the matter and established empirically that the human memory system is comprised of two separate systems,

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the conscious memory system and the unconscious memory system.

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His landmark paper, Memory and the Hippocampus a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys and humans.

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It's been cited nearly 3000 times.

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He's former president of the Society for Neuroscience and a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

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He has won many awards and honours, the last of which is the Golden Rookie Prize for Cognitive Neuroscience, which was last year.

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So today I present to you Professor Larry Squire on conscious and unconscious memory systems of the mammalian brain.

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Thanks very much. Well, what I'll try to do today is to introduce you to some of the concepts and the categories

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that frame our current understanding about the structure and organisation of memory.

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And I'll try to focus particularly on how the biological distinction between conscious

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and unconscious memory became a prominent topic for study in the neurosciences.

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And I'll try to describe what it is that we've learned. Well, memory is a large topic.

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It's based on the fundamental fact that the experiences we have can modify the nervous system so that

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later on our mental life and our behaviour can be different as a result of what happened in the past.

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This image comes from the Greek island of Santorini and with its charming name, Memories Hotel,

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which perhaps suggests nostalgia and perhaps intimacy and reminds us that memory is

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personal and evocative and intertwined with emotion and a fundamental part of what we are.

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Well, the neuroscience of memory is concerned with questions about structure,

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and that means psychological categories as well as neuroanatomy structure, organisation and mechanism.

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We're perceived on many levels from molecular and cellular questions about the nature of synaptic

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change to the more systems level questions that I'll be addressing today about what is memory?

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Is it one thing or many things? What are the brain structures that support memory operations?

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Do they carry out in the service of memory? Well, let me put the matter in perspective by first considering memory as an extension of perception.

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So we call this a simplified diagram of the primary visual system, which is from work with non-human primates.

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Each of these boxes represents a separate processing unit for visual or visual spatial information.

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Each of these boxes would contain on the order of 10 million to 100 million neurones.

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Now information from the external world first reaches the cortex at the back of the brain.

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An area of V1 moving over here now and from very V1, information moves forward into both in series and in parallel along two separate pathways.

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Some felt sometimes called the ventral pathway and the dorsal pathway.

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The ventral pathway reaches its culmination in what is called area T in the inferred temporal cortex,

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where representations are achieved about visual object quality that what an object is, its orientation, its size and its colour.

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For example, along the dorsal pathway, information reaches its pinnacle in the parietal cortex,

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where information is represented about where objects are in space and what the computations are needed,

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what computations are needed to reach out and get to places in space.

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Well, from there, connections move forward to a number of different target areas, for example,

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to the frontal lobe for the purposes of converting perception into action to the amygdala.

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And I've shown here for the purposes of converting,

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connecting perception to emotion and other subcortical targets, including the striatum and the pons.

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But for today will be concentrating on the connections between these areas,

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for these perceptual areas and these areas down here which lie in the medial surface of the temporal

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lobe and which accomplishes the task of converting or transforming perception into memory.

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So, for example, if one damages or removes any of these areas up here, one produces a particular kind of visual spatial deficit.

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But if one removes that area down here, one produces what we call a memory impairment.

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Now, the modern era of this problem can be said to have begun in 1957,

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when Brendan Milner at McGill University described the profound effects on memory of a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection,

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which was carried out as a frankly experimental procedure to relieve severe epilepsy in a patient who famously became known as H.M.

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I make mention that Brenda milner just turned 96 this summer.

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She just was in Oslo a few months ago to receive a cavalry prize, and she goes to her laboratory every day still at McGill University.

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This drawing shows the location of the hippocampus and the amygdala and the adjacent cortex that was removed in patient H.M. Bilaterally.

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At the time, it wasn't known what damage within this large geographical territory was responsible for H.M. Severe Memory Impairment,

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and was rather thought that the hippocampus itself was the important structure,

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mainly because we knew more about the hippocampus and the other structures that were involved.

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But the identity of the important structures and especially the fact that the cortex adjacent to the hippocampus is important.

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This became gradually understood during the 1980s following the successful

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development of an animal model of human memory impairment in the non-human primate.

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Here we see a ventral surface of the monkey brain to the front of the brain on the left, the back of the brain on the left.

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And what you're seeing here are the what became the candidate areas that were important for memory,

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areas that were removed from H.M. but they were candidate structures for understanding his memory impairment.

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We don't see the hippocampus, which itself which is buried beneath the surface in this posterior location here, or the amygdala which is buried here.

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What we are seeing is the interrupted cortex, which is of interest,

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because the entorhinal cortex originates the major afferent projections into the hippocampus.

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And these structures here, the parallel cortex in the pair of hippocampal cortex,

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which originate two thirds of the cortical input into the internal cortex.

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So this whole area can be thought of as one of the targeted zones or one of the one

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of the target objectives of projections that come from wide areas of neocortex,

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which are involved in vision and other kinds of processing and ultimately the storage of long term memory.

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Now, once the animal model was in place, it became a solvable problem for cumulative science to work out the answer to the question

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of what are the important structures for memory and how do we understand memory impairment?

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And this is a topic that we took on in San Diego and was also worked on heavily by Michigan.

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And I actually took about 12 years. But in the end, we could describe what we found in three simple declarative sentences.

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And here you've seen a schematic of this region of the brain.

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The hippocampus region can be divided into the car fields and the civic limb complex and the dentate gyrus.

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And these other areas that I just mentioned in the three declarative sentences go like this first,

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that the hippocampus itself is critical and damage limited of the hippocampus can

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can can produce an easily detectable and clinically significant memory impairment.

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Secondly, the amygdala, which was a candidate structure, is important for other things, but not important for understanding of memory impairment.

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And third, what was new and what even required some new neuroanatomy was the discovery that these structures here again,

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Toronto parietal and hippocampus cortices which lie adjacent to anatomically connected to the hippocampus, that these structures are also important.

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And these structures together with the hippocampus comprise what we now refer to as the medial temporal lobe memory system.

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And here we see this system illustrated in the three species that have been most prominent in this tradition of work the human brain,

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the monkey brain and the rodent brain, which can also be a proxy for the mouse brain.

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And all the one has to remember, it has to simply memorise the fact that the number enclosure,

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the terminology is a little bit different in the rat than in the human, in the monkey.

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And that is that the areas that are referred to as hippocampal cortex here in

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the human in the monkey is referred to as post renal cortex in the rat brain.

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Well, damage to this entire system here profoundly affects memory, essentially eliminates the capacity for memory.

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What you're looking at here is a horizontally oriented that is a horizontally oriented MRI scan, a structural scan of a patient.

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We had a chance to study for a long time a patient known as EPI,

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who became profoundly amnesic in 1992 at the age of 70, following a bout of viral encephalitis.

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What you're seeing here is the front of the brain at the top of the back of the brain at the bottom here.

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And what you're seeing in white is the abnormal tissue.

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And what's essentially happened is that this virus carved out the medial temporal lobe memory system.

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The amygdala is gone, although that wasn't relevant to his memory impairment.

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The hippocampus is entirely on the impair, on the cortex is entirely gone,

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and the pair of hippocampal cortex is damaged about 50% of its rostral aspect.

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The DP is so amnesic that he doesn't have the insight and never had the insight that he has amnesia

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because he never was able to develop a new understanding of himself as a result of his memory problem.

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A few years ago, he and his family volunteered to participate in the Scientific American

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Frontiers of Science television program hosted by the American actor Alan Alda.

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So I have an opportunity to play you a short about a three minute clip that will give you,

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I think, a nice sense of what this profound amnesia looks like.

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And what you'll see is, for example, the distinction between an intact short term memory and an impaired long term memory.

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You'll see the fact that his personality and intellectual ability and perceptual ability

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are there and that his amnesia occurs against a background of rather intact personality,

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perception and intellectual abilities. BP can also copy complex drawings, mainly as no difficulty repeating back at least of words.

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In this case, dog, raccoon,

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lion and parent who are right through one day but even has a little sleight of hand along the way, which they have to move.

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Oh, really? Well, then we did tell them to leave rather.

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Really, which is when the testing of these kinds of skills, advanced genes, laptop computer goal and the ability to over the years.

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Why is it all just wonderful?

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We're really proud of the services of the Council of European Research work right down to this.

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Just wanted to know what should be a structural right.

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But it's now that something odd about behaviour becomes apparent.

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Pretty sure it's time to try the whole structure there.

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Oh, you may believe it. When I was six foot six with a six foot rock.

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And now we're going down to the printed circuit.

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So he's not aware that he's told this three or four times that he used to being the electronics that a computer used to fill the room.

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Now he can say that he's just not aware that you said that several times.

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You know, these stories again and again.

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We've heard these stories before, and we'll hear these stories again and read you some words about 15 minutes ago,

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four of them or word you never really knew.

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Four words? No, I didn't pull them all.

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I read you for Animal and I want you to tell me. Yes.

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If you think the animal was on the list. I read you about 15 minutes ago or.

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No, if it was not on the left. Yes.

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Yes. How sure are you? I feel very sure.

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No. Raccoon? No.

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No. You're out.

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Yes, I'm sure you can. Sure.

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Sure. Beautiful. Okay. Ryan?

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No. Okay. Do you remember drawing something from you for that?

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You tried something about 10 minutes ago.

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No, I'm sorry. They don't have a lights back up.

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I might mention this points out the fallacy of small samples. Because we're really true that you answered every single question wrong.

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It would mean that you have a lot of information about the list, but I can tell you an informal experiment.

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He always scores exactly a chance, of course, scores randomly on on Tesla and tests like that,

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what we call the lesion was a large lesion involving the whole medial temporal lobe.

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Lesion limit of the hippocampus itself has a much less severe effect on memory.

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And now I'm showing you a finely organised or coronal section of the structural MRI

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of a of a patient on the right that we had a chance to study for a number of years.

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He became amnesic, mildly and modestly amnesic in 1984 as a result of respiratory distress.

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So if you look over on the left, that of a matched and matched age, matched a healthy individual, you can see the temporal lobe here.

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You can follow it around its external surface into its medial surface, where you can see the hippocampus lodged in the third ventricle.

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You can see the extent to which it fills the ventricle.

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You can even see some grey and white matter named via anatomical tracts within the hippocampus itself.

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If you catch the eye over to the right, I think even with an untrained eye,

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you can appreciate the fact that lamb's hippocampus is abnormally small about 45% of its normal size on formal measurement.

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It's a trophy. And in fact, when William died in 1990 of a carcinoma and we carried out a detailed neuropathological study of the brain,

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we could determine that, in fact, this reduction corresponded to a loss of all the cells in the hippocampus.

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So I might just I just say that to mention with if one hears about a 45% reduction in volume of the structure,

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one should immediately assume that 55% of it is is operating normally.

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So let's compare these two levels of severity in epi and elm.

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This is a well known neuropsychological test where a subject is asked to copy this nonsense figure.

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And then some minutes later, 10 minutes later, without forewarning, the subject is invited to reconstruct it from memory.

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So here you see very nice copies of both, both patients and the control subject.

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Here you see the reproduction of the control did very good job.

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It's not as hard as it sounds because they've spent all these minutes reconstructing it, drawing that in the first place.

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Here you see elms reproduction, which is although it certainly has a resemblance to the target,

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it's outside of the range of what a healthy individual would produce. And here you see epi as on the film you saw he didn't even remember.

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He made a drawing a few minutes ago and he declined to make any kind of a guess.

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So building on this tradition,

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what I'd like to do then is to briefly illustrate three key ideas based on work with with humans and non-human primates.

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The first is that memory is not a single faculty of the mind.

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There are different kinds of memory supported by different brain systems,

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and the major distinction has to be drawn between our capacity for conscious, declarative memory.

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And by there I mean facts and events, declarative memory on the one hand, and unconscious non declarative memory on the other hand,

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where performance changes as a result of experience and in that sense deserves a term memory.

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But we're performance changes without even requiring any conscious memory content.

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And on many occasions even the awareness that memory is being used.

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And here I'm talking about things like skills and habits, and I'll be illustrating some of these by my example in a moment.

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Secondly, in the context of multiple memory systems, I would describe how one memory system can sometimes substitute for another.

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But the result, the cognitive product is very different depending on which system is used.

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Some tasks that you and I learned declaratively quickly with a supportive, declarative,

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conscious memory by memorising these tasks can also be learned gradually.

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That is non declaratively, entirely outside of awareness and without any involvement or any contribution from the medial temporal lobe.

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And third, and even more briefly,

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I mentioned that the medial temporal lobe structures that we're speaking about here have a temporary role in the formation and maintenance of memory,

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an idea that we best understand for the hippocampus itself. It's very remote.

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Memory, including spatial memory, are intact after medial temporal lobe damage,

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which means that the medial temporal lobe is not the ultimate repository of memory,

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and memories are stored in a distributed fashion,

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a neocortex and correspondence with the areas that are needed to process information to be in the first place.

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Well, a striking finding about the organisation of memory was that the same patients that we're

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discussing here are the same patients who are so profoundly impaired of conventional memory tests.

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These patients are nonetheless fully intact at certain kinds of tasks that

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assess the effects of experience on behaviour and that are our memory tasks.

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The first example of this came.

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From Brenda milner herself in this famous experiment done in 1962, in which h m to her surprise and everybody else's surprise,

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h m was able to trace the contours, trace the outline of a double contoured star in a mirror, and he learned to do that over time.

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You know, the first you make mistakes that every time you make a corner, but you get better at it.

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And he did better on the first day, better on even still better on the second day and nearly perfectly on the third day,

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even though on each day he had no memory that he had done the task before.

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Colin Blakemore from Oxford University in his popular book Mechanics of Mind I suppose.

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Well, that's maybe meant that motor skills are special and motor skills are down here in

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the cerebellum and everything else is of one piece and that's up here in the cortex.

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And that's kind of how we all thought about it for some time.

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But then in 1980, we were able to show that these same amnesic patients are able to learn not just motor skills,

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but perceptual skills like learning to read, mirror, reverse, predict, throw difficult the first time through.

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And one can take as long as 60 or 70 seconds to get all three of them.

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But eventually one gets better and one gets better and better with hypnotic apocalypse and functional.

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And it turned out that amnesic patients learn this task at a completely normal

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rate and can remember that skill completely at a normal level three months later,

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despite in many cases not remembering having done the task before.

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So we can see if this finding in terms of a distinction initially between what we call declarative in procedural

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knowledge and we likened it to the goal rails distinction in 1947 between knowing how and knowing that.

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But it turned out that this concept still wasn't really large enough to encompass the

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number of things that turned out to be outside the province of the medial temporal lobe.

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And I think examples of and examples of non declarative memory.

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So next, I want to introduce you to a still another phenomenon called known as priming.

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Priming refers to an improvement in the ability to identify or process a stimulus as a result of a recent encounter with the same or related stimulus.

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Now, that may sound like another way of talking about memory,

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but I'll try to convince you that this is a very different kind of phenomenon altogether from regular memory,

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when what is improved is the process of a process of an item.

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We call it perceptual priming. And what is improved is access to the meaning of an item and its associates.

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We call it conceptual priming. And I'm going to give you an example from conceptual priming.

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So this is this simple task as the subject first studies of about 14 common English words.

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And then after about 10 minutes, we're outside the region where somebody could simply be rehearsing the words overt, overtly.

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One is given free association tests, one. One says, What's the first word that comes to mind when you hear the word canvas?

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What's the first word that comes to mind when you hear the word strap? Well, there's about a 10% baseline effect.

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That is, there's about a 10% chance that you say the word anyway, even if you didn't study it recently.

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But if you did a study of recently, there's now about a 25% chance that the word you pop out will be that word.

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And here's control subjects, normal subjects, healthy, certainly showing this 15% advantage,

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that's 15% above baseline, about a 25% chance of saying the word.

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What was extraordinarily is that patients with profound amnesia, including EPI, that you met.

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So this effect at full strength in hippocampal patients also do a pretty good job at showing this phenomenon.

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And yet when you do it, when you perform a parallel test of recognition memory, that is a test of familiarity where you again, you see 14 words.

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But now the question is you're shown a series of 28 words.

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Some are old wounds, some are new ones. And you're invited to make a judgement as to whether the words were or were not in the list,

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because that's a trivial task for healthy subjects get better than 90% correct.

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But the patients with amnesia are impaired on that. In fact, EPI.

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This is Eppes data here.

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He scored no better than if he had flipped a coin to determine his answer, although he performed it fully intact on the priming test.

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So this is telling is the prime.

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It is completely independent phenomenon from the phenomenon of recognition, memory or conventional declarative, declarative memory.

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I'm going to also illustrate the same basic idea and work with non-human primates.

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In order to do that, I do, I'm going to introduce you to two famous tasks that were used in this kind of work.

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This task is known as trial unique, delayed, not measured as sample success or familiarity is the test of recognition judgements.

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What happens in this task is that beginning on the first phase of the trial, the animal confronts what we call a junk object.

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The animal displaces the object to obtain a raising reward, thereby guaranteeing the animal's attention to the object.

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And then, after a variable delay, the screen comes down. The objects are rearranged.

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After a delay, as long as 10 minutes or 40 minutes, the animal sees what's shown here.

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The new object. The new object, and an old object and delay not matching the sample than with the splices, the new object to obtain a reward,

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thereby indicating to the experiment of the animal, remembers the old and no less interesting object.

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So that's a test of recognition, memory, the same kind of thing one could do in humans.

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Now let's consider a second task. A test of motor skill learning.

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Here the animal confronts a tube of metal to a lifesaver,

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has been threaded onto the tube and the animal has the opportunity to slide the candy along the tube negotiated not in return,

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and then remove it and eat it as a candid reward. And one simply scores how long it takes the animal to do that.

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So let's look at the data for monkeys with normal monkeys,

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monkeys with hippocampal lesions like patient limb and monkeys with large medial temporal lobe lesions like patient epi.

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So here on the left, you see the results for the recognition memory task with delays that range from 8 seconds to 10 minutes.

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As you see in the normal monkeys. There's some forgetting across that delay, as you would expect.

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Hippocampal animals show a modest degree of amnesia and modest degree of forgetfulness.

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And immediately below, monkeys show a profound forgetfulness so that after 10 minutes,

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they're performing by flipping a coin to determine which object they're going to choose.

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On the other hand, over here with skill learning, giving these animals six trials a day across eight days,

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initially all the monkeys learn the task at exactly the same rate, and one or two months later is one month later on two different trials.

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The monkeys are performing the skill at a high level.

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So what that's telling us is that the same monkeys who can't remember the identity of an object after 10 minutes are fully intact.

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They're showing day to day improvement and are learning across across a period of eight days.

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So what this all takes us to is this kind of a sketch of how many of us think about long term memory at this point.

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We divide long term memory into two major categories declarative memory and non declarative memory.

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So declarative memory is our memory for facts and events. Declarative memory is what we mean by the term memory when we use it in everyday language.

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It refers to our remember. I remember what we had for breakfast this morning and what we did a year ago.

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And the facts, the facts of our knowledge about the world and the specific events that we've experienced in the world.

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And these this capacity depends on the integrity of the medial temporal lobe and brother and sister

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structures in the dying stuff along the thalamus and hypothalamus that I'm not speaking about today,

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not declarative memory is not a single thing.

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It's an umbrella term to encompass a whole variety of ways in which behaviour can change as a result of experience.

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It includes skills and habits which have a critical dependence on this right.

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And this the caudate nucleus and the attachment, the phenomenon of priming that we spoke about in perceptual learning,

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which seem to be intrinsic to the neocortex, simple classical conditioning which can be divided into two parts the condition of emotional responses,

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which in real life might mean something like the development of a phobia across time or in the laboratory for conditioning,

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dependence on the amygdala, the conditioning of skeletal responses in real life,

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that might be something like driving a motorcycle to a stop sign and negotiating the clutch from the brakes in association

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with each other in a laboratory that's usually thought of related to idling conditioning and non associative learning,

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which is a phenomenon like habituation and sensitisation that are well developed in invertebrate animals,

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that haven't yet invented the hippocampus but have a well demonstrated ability to change their behaviour

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as a role of experience in animals like the ecclesia or software that is the sea slug and the fruit fly.

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When I see all these terms, I'm always reminded of the quip that comes from Wilhelm Feld Berg,

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who was a psycho pharmacologist working in Britain with the great scientist Bernard Katzman.

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FELBER said There are some scientists who would rather use another scientist's toothbrush than use this terminology.

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And what I'd like to say is that the psychology that mature to the point where it can depend

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a lot on biology to make its classification so it matters less what terms one uses up here,

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because we know the brain structures and we know the systems that support these different kinds of behaviours.

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So the idea of course is that all these systems work in parallel work at the same time.

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So we consider the hypothetical example of a young child of ten, let's say, who was knocked over by a large dog.

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And then we could say, well, at the age of 25, at least two different things have happened.

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One is that the individual may remember the incident, and to the extent that the person remembers the incident,

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one is calling on the integrity of the medial temporal lobe structures to remember this particular autobiographical event.

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But the second thing may have happened is the person may be afraid of dogs.

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And to the person, to the extent that the person is afraid of dogs, one is calling on the amygdala.

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And the point at the point, of course, is that that fear of dogs is not experienced as a memory.

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It's experience is a part of a piece of personality, an aptitude, a disposition, a way of behaving.

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So declarative memory is expressed through recollection. And on the clarity of memory, there's an expressive performance.

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Now, one of the reasons it took a long time to work this out is there are tasks that humans learn as declared of knowledge by memorising essentially,

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but but tasks that animals and even monkeys will learn on declaratively.

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And I'll give you an example of that from another task is rather well known in the literature.

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And this is known as the concurrent eight pairs discrimination task.

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What happens in this task simply is that there are eight pairs eventually to be learned, each pairs presenter one at a time.

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One of the object is designated as correct, and of course to the left, the right position of the objects is reversed is random.

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So and subjects have to learn which object is correct in each of the pairs.

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Typically, 40 trials are given in a day, so each topic pairs present in five times.

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So if your intuition is like mine, if you were given this task to learn, you simply try to memorise what the answer is for each task.

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And that's in fact how humans do that task. Here's an example from earlier work with control subjects learning the task

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rather easily over a period of a few days and even remembered it a month later.

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Whereas a missing patient struggle to learn is a mixed group of patients not as

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profound as epi learning a little and then and forgetting a lot all across time.

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So it was with some surprise when we discover that monkeys with hippocampal lesions or even medial temporal lesions learn this task.

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Normally here the data for normal monkeys learning the same task.

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They take almost 500 trials to learn it, and monkeys with hippocampal lesions learn the task in the same number of trials.

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However, when the lesion moves dorsally to still also include the chaotic nucleus, which is thought to be important for habit learning.

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Then the animals were impaired and others went on later to show that lesions limited to the nucleus itself caused an impairment in this task.

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So this raises the question then what can patients with her found amnesia like if he can,

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patients with profound amnesia who have no capacity for declarative memory,

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could they a task acquire a task like this through gradual trial and error, learning through what we might term have it learning?

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If so, is unconscious knowledge acquired? And what does it mean to acquire unconscious knowledge?

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Or does the knowledge have different doesn't always have different properties in declarative memory?

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Or are we so governed by particular strategies that one memory system cannot really

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substitute for another as if each system has its own domain or perhaps habit?

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Memory is not so was not so strongly developed in humans as it is in monkeys or rats.

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Or perhaps we always need a little bit of declarative memory to gut our performance so

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that it wouldn't be possible without declarative memory to learn these kinds of things.

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So we asked this question of a patient epi and a very similar patient known as GP.

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So patients who were tested on the task and here's control subject learning to learn the task is a very simple task.

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And of course they show good performance even on day one because as I said, there's 40 trials in only eight pairs.

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So by the time the pairs are coming around again on the first day, they're already remembering what they saw before.

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And they and they and by three days are performing perfectly.

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Now, one of the features of declarative memory is that the collective memory is flexible, as you might add to it.

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I mean, once you learn something, you can do it with your hand, you can do it with your foot, you can talk about it, you can write about it.

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It's flexible knowledge. In order to bring that into the laboratory, we asked the subjects to perform the same task in a different way.

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We put the 16 objects in this in a pile in the middle of the table and said, Please sort the objects into correct pile, an incorrect pile.

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Well, if you've memorised which one is the correct, that's a trivial exercise for a healthy subject.

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And they did it perfectly. And then, of course, when we reconstitute the test in its original way, again, they're perfect.

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So we asked this question of patient epi, first of all. And we tested him on twice a week on non-consecutive days over a period of time.

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And every day we asked him at the beginning of the day, we've been here many times, what are we going to do?

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And if he never was able to say anything better than, well, we're going to have a conversation, we're going to talk,

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and then we would pull out the objects and he would ask them again, will we use these objects?

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What do we do with the objects?

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And he never did anything more clear than saying, Well, we'll talk about what their function is and what they're used for and what they are.

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So we began to give the test to EPI.

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In epee, although quite gradually and over time improved his performance to nearly perfectly across 18 weeks 36 sessions.

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Until until we perform perfectly. And then we did the flexibility test to ask him, you know, what he what did he know about what he knew?

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We put the 16 objects in the middle of the table and we tape record of every session.

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And then we remember that when we put the object the middle of the middle of the table, he said, Oh, my goodness.

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And then he tried to sort them and he didn't even put the same number of objects in each pile and couldn't do the task at all.

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Then when he reconstituted the task in his original way, he was perfect.

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And then because one likes to be had to have data hit,

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hit over the head with data rather than be a protagonist for the data that we did the same thing 17 days later.

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And again, he failed when the task and performed perfectly when reconstitute the task.

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There's an interesting anecdote about his performance when he was performing.

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Well, I have to tell you a little more about how you do the task. It's the obviously the obvious replace in front of him.

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And all he's asked to do is to pick the correct object and what he means.

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He makes a selection by picking the object up and turning it over to see if the word correct is written on the bottom.

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So he's going along picking up the object, is that correct? And then the next one comes up and is correct and is correct.

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And he says, How am I doing this?

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And Jennifer said to him, Well, are you doing it because you remember from previous trials, which are because correct in which object is incorrect?

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And he said, No, no, it just goes from here, pointing to his head to there pointing to the table.

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So that seems to be the best we can do. And talking about our habits. We also then tested the second patient that I mentioned also.

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He also learned the task in this case over a period of 14 weeks.

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We don't have an account with this early little splurge here, this little bump.

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But then he was very gradual and when we gave GP the sorting task,

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he also was completely disabled by it but performed well and we reconstituted it in 17

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kilometres again and 17 days later again we see poor performance and then a good performance.

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So these results tell us then that humans have a robust capacity for gradual trial and error learning that can

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operate outside of awareness for what was learned and independently of the medial temporal lobe structures.

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So humans would learn this rapidly as declarative memory, but it can also be acquired more slowly.

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And in that case it's rigidly organised, it's unaware of learning, and it's quite different from declarative memory in its characteristics.

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So just briefly now, I'm going to turn to our final topic, which is the topic of remote memory,

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or we call it retrograde amnesia, which I'll explain in a second.

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So this is Theodore Revo, the French philosopher and psychologist who in 1881,

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in his book La Maladie de la Mémoire of Diseases of Memory, he described the characteristics of memory impairment.

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And Ribeau is fascinated by the phenomenon of retrograde amnesia,

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which refers to the fact that when patients develop a desire not only to develop a failure of the learning capacity,

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which we call integrative amnesia, but they also typically develop some retrograde amnesia.

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They lose some memories for the time before that of events that occurred and things that were learned before they became a music.

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And what we're noticed was that when that happens, it's the new memories that are the more recent members that are affected more than motor memories.

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That is a remote part of the new parish before the old.

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And this, in fact, became known in the literature as Rebus Law.

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We've done a lot of studies of this phenomenon, and I'm just going to give you one tiny example based on Epps memory,

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because you saw his anterograde amnesia, you saw how impaired he was and acquiring new information.

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We also we query deeply about his memories for his childhood environment.

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EPP grew up in the Castro Valley Hayward area of the East Bay across from San Francisco, but moved away as a young man hasn't lived there since.

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And on the map here in this formal test that I'm going to give you just a little bit of a little bit of data,

391
00:37:30,790 --> 00:37:37,870
a little bit of information about on this map, we located a number of places that anybody who grew up there would know about.

392
00:37:38,650 --> 00:37:43,120
This is just a small part of the map. This, for example, is the Castro Valley Grammar School.

393
00:37:43,180 --> 00:37:48,040
This is the Bret Hart School. This is the the Hayward Theatre.

394
00:37:48,190 --> 00:37:56,440
And this is the Hayward High School. So we asked EPA in a formal way how he would get from one place from his home to one of these places.

395
00:37:56,470 --> 00:37:58,540
We asked him how he would get from one place to another.

396
00:37:58,900 --> 00:38:02,290
We asked him how you get from one place to another when the main street, he just uses the block.

397
00:38:02,290 --> 00:38:06,369
He had to find an alternate route. And we also asked him to stand in certain locations.

398
00:38:06,370 --> 00:38:09,969
Imagine himself pointing in a certain direction and point to another location.

399
00:38:09,970 --> 00:38:14,770
For example, he would say, Your point. You're standing in front of a bank facing South Point to the Bay Bridge,

400
00:38:14,770 --> 00:38:17,829
and he would make a point of movement, but I'm not going to show you all the data for that.

401
00:38:17,830 --> 00:38:21,640
Rather, I thought maybe even more interesting to hear him do this on film.

402
00:38:22,270 --> 00:38:31,600
So again, I'm going to play you a short excerpt from this same film that you saw before about your house on the way to the Hayward Theatre,

403
00:38:32,170 --> 00:38:46,640
where they would leave the house and turn to the right boulevard and do a work in the middle of La Oak.

404
00:38:46,870 --> 00:39:01,900
And if you didn't go down to Eighth Street, if you instead took, you could take another community Centre River through right into the public library.

405
00:39:01,990 --> 00:39:13,600
They would come back from your house with the same thing, go down Main Street and there's a you have to go to the left to turn the corner.

406
00:39:14,730 --> 00:39:23,710
I don't think it would seem that would be the last thing I want to talk to you about is the neighbourhood that we're in now.

407
00:39:25,060 --> 00:39:28,170
Q How about any of the streets around here?

408
00:39:28,260 --> 00:39:31,260
Can you tell me any of the street names in the neighbourhood?

409
00:39:31,270 --> 00:39:36,310
You. No, I have not.

410
00:39:37,430 --> 00:39:41,890
Talk about the telephone. Yeah. What are you going to do about that?

411
00:39:42,070 --> 00:39:48,670
Well, I know we can't throw a party, but that you are born and raised right here, I have to say.

412
00:39:48,670 --> 00:39:53,710
No, I'm sorry. You know, I enjoy the world.

413
00:39:54,040 --> 00:40:06,839
Your area right here, the. So one doesn't have to claim that EPP Group member is fully intact to appreciate the dramatic difference between his

414
00:40:06,840 --> 00:40:15,360
inability to learn new spatial locations and his frantic ability to recall the details of his childhood environment.

415
00:40:15,660 --> 00:40:18,630
So this shows us then directly that the medial temporal lobe structures,

416
00:40:19,470 --> 00:40:25,440
including the hippocampus that are important for new spatial learning, are not similarly important for accessing the past.

417
00:40:27,140 --> 00:40:32,780
So the last slide I'll show you, just to summarise again back to Neuroanatomy,

418
00:40:32,780 --> 00:40:36,290
which I like to say is the foundational discipline for cognitive neuroscience.

419
00:40:36,980 --> 00:40:40,010
Here you can see again these medial temporal lobe structures that we've been talking about,

420
00:40:40,010 --> 00:40:48,590
the hippocampus itself and the dentate gyrus and the speculum and the adjacent cortices, the entorhinal parietal and hippocampal cortices.

421
00:40:49,490 --> 00:40:55,670
This is what we again call a simplified diagram of the cortical areas of projecting into the medial temporal lobe.

422
00:40:56,420 --> 00:40:59,840
The robustness of the projections corresponds to the thickness of the lines.

423
00:41:00,410 --> 00:41:07,730
So you can see that there's a number of cortical areas that may have a set of targets the the the medial temporal lobe memory system.

424
00:41:08,420 --> 00:41:12,049
And so what I've told you is that there are, though, multiple memory systems.

425
00:41:12,050 --> 00:41:15,950
This represents the operation of one memory system, the declarative memory.

426
00:41:15,950 --> 00:41:21,499
But these cortical structures interact with also with the amygdala and with the striatum in support of other kinds of memory,

427
00:41:21,500 --> 00:41:26,480
like habit, memory, fear, memory, skilful memory, and so on.

428
00:41:27,530 --> 00:41:33,109
And secondly, I told you that the clarity of memory is a conscious form of memory,

429
00:41:33,110 --> 00:41:36,950
and that some of the tasks that we can learn consciously in declarative,

430
00:41:36,950 --> 00:41:39,439
it can also be learned unconsciously and not declaratively,

431
00:41:39,440 --> 00:41:42,920
but through a different system and with a different result and a different cognitive product.

432
00:41:43,760 --> 00:41:48,649
And third, I told you that these medial temporal lobe structures don't appear to be the permanent repositories

433
00:41:48,650 --> 00:41:53,480
of memories because patients like EPI have intact ability to access their remote paths.

434
00:41:54,680 --> 00:42:00,560
And so it's this interaction between the medial temporal lobe and neocortex that makes that possible

435
00:42:00,800 --> 00:42:06,050
through a process that we don't understand very well is referred to as consolidation or reorganisation,

436
00:42:06,410 --> 00:42:09,979
so that memories that are initially in the neocortex become permanently stored

437
00:42:09,980 --> 00:42:13,640
in the neocortex through the help of the medial temporal lobe structures.

438
00:42:15,230 --> 00:42:18,530
So I'll just say, if you're interested in following any of the software looking into it further,

439
00:42:18,530 --> 00:42:22,940
I can point you to the book that I had the privilege of writing with Eric Kandel,

440
00:42:23,720 --> 00:42:28,790
and then I'll just say through that to remind us that work like I've described to you is not done alone,

441
00:42:28,790 --> 00:42:38,269
but done with a team of people and undergraduate volunteers, graduate students, postdoctoral fellow and research assistants.

442
00:42:38,270 --> 00:42:44,330
And here we all are standing outside of our laboratory in Southern California in some unknown season.

443
00:42:46,310 --> 00:42:57,840
And I'm thank you very much. So we will take questions.

444
00:42:57,840 --> 00:43:05,560
Now, unless there are specific questions for clarification for this talk, we will have a joint discussion after final thought.

445
00:43:05,970 --> 00:43:16,260
So if you have any questions were asked about this, Larry, but if not, we will not stop until we get the drinks.

446
00:43:16,590 --> 00:43:25,220
Thank you. So we'll just start introducing Simon straightaway.

447
00:43:26,770 --> 00:43:32,390
I mean, to respond to a call like this from a literary point of view, it must be a daunting task.

448
00:43:33,410 --> 00:43:39,920
But as anybody came to Simon's talk last time on 5 seconds, I'll never will know.

449
00:43:39,920 --> 00:43:46,370
Simon is no fun. Is it that you talk a little French in some of the footage?

450
00:43:46,800 --> 00:43:52,760
He's interested in 2016, said the first impression changes his mind is French speaking primarily.

451
00:43:53,100 --> 00:44:02,010
He's just completed a modest, mostly white scene with the mind, and he has a blog called Adventures on the Bookshelf that you make up.

452
00:44:02,270 --> 00:44:07,759
So, Simon, thank you for also just a good presence, right.

453
00:44:07,760 --> 00:44:11,420
I shall just distract yourselves with the handouts while I finish setting up my i.t.

454
00:44:24,170 --> 00:44:29,520
Oh, sorry. Easy. It's.

455
00:44:38,450 --> 00:44:47,630
So this is a response to Larry looking at unconscious memory from post to the present and searching for

456
00:44:49,010 --> 00:44:55,700
how the model that Larry has been laying out for us might be useful to people in the arts and humanities.

457
00:44:58,100 --> 00:45:02,180
If you ask what unconscious memory has generally meant to people in the arts,

458
00:45:03,920 --> 00:45:06,970
the term has been part of our critical discourse for the better part of a century.

459
00:45:06,980 --> 00:45:12,020
But in all of that time it's largely been understood in psychoanalytic terms.

460
00:45:12,740 --> 00:45:18,440
When we've used the term memory, we've understood it as a capital with a capital sorry,

461
00:45:18,890 --> 00:45:22,580
as declarative memory generally of an event personally experienced and the unconscious.

462
00:45:22,580 --> 00:45:28,069
We've often understood with a capital U as the Freudian feels chamber of the mind into which

463
00:45:28,070 --> 00:45:32,780
is consigned everything the conscious mind finds to shameful or traumatic to contemplate,

464
00:45:33,080 --> 00:45:38,520
including memories of painful past experiences. They're isolated from the conscious mind.

465
00:45:38,540 --> 00:45:45,080
Unconscious material, Freud says, proliferates in the dark, as it were, and takes on extreme forms of expression,

466
00:45:45,320 --> 00:45:51,799
manifesting itself in coded dream images, slips and neurotic feelings and behaviours such as phobias or repetition.

467
00:45:51,800 --> 00:45:57,980
Compulsion. This is a model of unconscious memory that has served literary critics well,

468
00:45:58,280 --> 00:46:01,250
as we often follow in Freud's own footsteps where literature is concerned.

469
00:46:02,300 --> 00:46:10,100
For example, Freud's analysis of Ethyl Hoffman's as Ant-Man reads the story as an illustration of the return of the repressed,

470
00:46:10,310 --> 00:46:14,330
where the adult protagonist of the story is haunted by a demonic figure who

471
00:46:14,330 --> 00:46:18,080
resembles the man he blamed for his father's violent death many years before.

472
00:46:18,470 --> 00:46:23,930
And for Freud, the apparent supernatural elements of this tale can be rationalised as the unconscious memory of the

473
00:46:23,930 --> 00:46:28,850
protagonist's childhood trauma manifesting in his consciousness in the form of paranoid delusions.

474
00:46:31,370 --> 00:46:39,960
Now Freud's division of the non-conscious mind into a pre conscious storeroom into which we can delve at will where you see dreams, states,

475
00:46:40,030 --> 00:46:46,219
recent experiences and a sealed unconscious guarded by sensory gatekeepers has

476
00:46:46,220 --> 00:46:50,090
become rather less plausible over the course of the century since it was proposed.

477
00:46:50,960 --> 00:46:57,440
There's widespread scepticism, too, about the process of repression by which memories are rendered unconscious and through which,

478
00:46:57,440 --> 00:47:00,230
according to Freud, the unconscious is brought into being in the first place.

479
00:47:01,130 --> 00:47:06,950
But if we choose not to abide by the psychoanalytic definition of unconscious memory,

480
00:47:07,250 --> 00:47:11,420
then the phrase is suddenly in danger of becoming tautological for our purposes.

481
00:47:12,200 --> 00:47:19,400
If you don't have Freud's distinction between conscious and unconscious, then in one sense it's true that all your memories are unconscious,

482
00:47:19,610 --> 00:47:22,910
with the exception of the one that you're thinking about right now, this minute.

483
00:47:24,080 --> 00:47:31,070
And as we've just seen, modern cognitive neuroscience proposes a new typology of memory, hopefully sense to me by Larry.

484
00:47:31,580 --> 00:47:36,790
This is Larry's own diagram, a new typology of memory which avoids this difficulty.

485
00:47:36,800 --> 00:47:42,260
So on the one hand, as we've had, you have declarative memory of stored representations that you knew heard the fact,

486
00:47:42,260 --> 00:47:46,880
you know, the experience you had, which can be recalled explicitly to consciousness.

487
00:47:47,030 --> 00:47:52,430
And on the other hand, you have this collection of systems which may not be related in the brain, which are given the umbrella label,

488
00:47:52,550 --> 00:47:58,250
non declarative memory, all of which involve a lasting imprint on mind and behaviour from something experienced,

489
00:47:58,610 --> 00:48:02,149
but an imprint which doesn't take the form of words or images or other sense

490
00:48:02,150 --> 00:48:05,270
impressions that we can recall to mind and which we conventionally call memories.

491
00:48:06,320 --> 00:48:13,490
These non declarative memories include, as we've heard, the skills and habits of procedural memory priming and perceptual learning conditioning

492
00:48:13,640 --> 00:48:17,540
and the habituation and sensitisation that make up non associative learning.

493
00:48:18,590 --> 00:48:20,420
So like psychoanalysis,

494
00:48:21,110 --> 00:48:26,870
the cognitive model device memories up into those which are at least theoretically accessible to consciousness and those which are not.

495
00:48:27,710 --> 00:48:33,890
However, everything that psychoanalysis understands as memory is now all lumped together in the declarative

496
00:48:33,890 --> 00:48:38,540
category as memories that can be calls to mind whether or not you're presently able to do it.

497
00:48:39,530 --> 00:48:47,030
And in the other category, we have a new kind of unconscious memory, which is qualitatively incompatible with conscious representation.

498
00:48:48,600 --> 00:48:52,409
So what I'd like to do today. With the help of Larry's diagram,

499
00:48:52,410 --> 00:48:59,280
is take a look without psychoanalytic spectacles at how memory and the unconscious are associated in modern European literature.

500
00:48:59,700 --> 00:49:03,570
I want to see whether the model of unconscious memory as non declarative memory

501
00:49:03,690 --> 00:49:07,740
offers a useful way to analyse the representation of memory in literature.

502
00:49:08,430 --> 00:49:12,809
And at the same time, I want to ask the question if non declarative memory,

503
00:49:12,810 --> 00:49:18,540
if these kinds of memory cannot be represented to consciousness, how can they be represented in literature?

504
00:49:19,790 --> 00:49:27,530
So I basically have been on a hunt through 20th and 21st century literature looking for representations which

505
00:49:28,370 --> 00:49:33,440
have something in common with the various kinds of non declarative memory that Larry's been telling us about.

506
00:49:34,220 --> 00:49:40,879
So if we're going to study memory in modern European, modern European literature, we find a natural starting point in post.

507
00:49:40,880 --> 00:49:48,590
And that's where I'm going to begin to divide memory into two kinds and a third different way of dividing them up.

508
00:49:49,310 --> 00:49:58,370
He divides them into voluntary and involuntary memory, exemplified in the first section of student held by his adult recollections of childhood.

509
00:49:59,810 --> 00:50:01,820
For much of his life, the narrator's life,

510
00:50:02,060 --> 00:50:07,880
all that he can recall as the anxious wait at bedtime to see if his mother will come and give him a goodnight kiss.

511
00:50:08,360 --> 00:50:12,620
This memory is highly vivid with the rest of his childhood lost on.

512
00:50:12,620 --> 00:50:16,370
Here's an extract from that famous opening to the novel.

513
00:50:17,990 --> 00:50:22,400
So it was that for a long time, when awakened at night, I remembered, come away again.

514
00:50:22,880 --> 00:50:30,170
I saw nothing of it but this sort of luminous panel cut out from among indistinct shadows like those panels, which the glow of a Bengal light,

515
00:50:30,170 --> 00:50:33,050
which in fact is a kind of firework or some electric projection,

516
00:50:33,170 --> 00:50:37,640
will cut out and illuminate in a building whose other parts remain plunged into darkness.

517
00:50:38,540 --> 00:50:45,920
As though his childhood holiday home had consisted only of two floors connected by a slender staircase,

518
00:50:46,280 --> 00:50:51,980
and as though it had always been 7:00 in the evening, that the fact is, I could have answered anyone who asked me.

519
00:50:52,130 --> 00:50:56,390
The company also also the company also included other things and existed at other hours.

520
00:50:56,630 --> 00:51:01,940
But since what I recalled would have been supplied to me only by my voluntary memory, the memory of the intelligence,

521
00:51:02,390 --> 00:51:09,230
and since the information it gives about the past preserves nothing of it, I would never have had any desire to think about the rest of convey.

522
00:51:09,530 --> 00:51:17,930
It was all really quite dead for me. Then famously the taste of a madeleine dipped in lime blossom tea,

523
00:51:18,170 --> 00:51:23,390
a taste which he enjoyed regularly in his childhood but crucially has never experienced in the intervening years,

524
00:51:23,720 --> 00:51:29,840
provides him with a direct link back to his past, and the memory resurfaces slowly and uncertainly,

525
00:51:29,990 --> 00:51:36,380
accompanied by a surge of happiness and amid marine imagery in the text as if something dislodged from the seabed and ascending to the surface.

526
00:51:38,500 --> 00:51:43,719
So both the bedtime anxiety and the flood of childhood experiences that make up

527
00:51:43,720 --> 00:51:47,860
the first part of this novel fit into the category of declarative memories.

528
00:51:47,860 --> 00:51:55,240
And on your typology, it's worth mentioning that voluntary and involuntary memory never were a good fit for the Freudian model of memory.

529
00:51:55,390 --> 00:52:01,720
Despite the numerous psychoanalytic readings the novels received, host who had no knowledge of Freud's theory effectively flips it.

530
00:52:02,260 --> 00:52:09,280
The traumatic memory that psychoanalysis would have repressed into the unconscious is instead accessible at will, as if seared into the mind.

531
00:52:09,550 --> 00:52:13,660
While the anodyne memories of pleasant and neutral experiences are the ones that have faded.

532
00:52:14,650 --> 00:52:18,460
And incidentally, the existence of repression, I believe, remains a live question in neuroscience.

533
00:52:19,300 --> 00:52:23,260
V.S. Ramachandran is one voice from neuroscience who supports its existence,

534
00:52:23,890 --> 00:52:28,390
whereas a paper I came across by David as Holmes marshals together the evidence against it,

535
00:52:28,900 --> 00:52:34,600
citing research findings that emotionally intense experiences were more likely to be recalled than less intense experiences,

536
00:52:34,720 --> 00:52:39,160
regardless of whether they were pleasant or unpleasant, which sounds very much like Post's view.

537
00:52:40,500 --> 00:52:43,590
But what of non declarative memories and post?

538
00:52:44,640 --> 00:52:50,430
Interestingly, the second time the narrator some succumbs to Madeleine syndrome in the novel.

539
00:52:50,730 --> 00:52:57,420
No declarative memory is forthcoming in a carriage ride with Madame de Ville, Paris, near the seaside town of Baalbek.

540
00:52:57,690 --> 00:53:05,340
The narrator sees three trees in a line, and he's immediately struck with the same feeling of joy that accompanies the return of a memory.

541
00:53:06,290 --> 00:53:13,700
He says. I gazed at the three trees, which I could see quite clearly, but my mind suspected they hid something on which I could have no purchase.

542
00:53:13,880 --> 00:53:20,870
As our fingertips at the full stretch of our arm may from time to time barely touched but not quite grasp objects which lie just out of reach.

543
00:53:21,380 --> 00:53:27,200
So one rests for a moment before trying harder with the arm outstretched in the hope of catching hold at last.

544
00:53:28,850 --> 00:53:34,740
So in this passage, the narrator's focusing on what's absent the declarative memories at the sight of the trees.

545
00:53:34,910 --> 00:53:39,800
Fails to conjure up. But in doing that he rather neglects what's present.

546
00:53:40,340 --> 00:53:45,530
A major disturbance in his state of mind, caused by the effect of some past experience on his present,

547
00:53:45,800 --> 00:53:50,660
but which doesn't declare itself explicitly to his conscious mind, he says.

548
00:53:50,900 --> 00:53:57,890
There's a feeling of profound bliss that opens the episode, which is followed by a disorienting confusion of inner and outer worlds.

549
00:53:58,160 --> 00:54:04,640
He says the countryside around Baalbek shifted and faulted, and I had to ask myself whether this whole outing was not some figment Baalbek,

550
00:54:04,650 --> 00:54:11,390
merely a place where I might once have been in my imagination. This sense of familiarity, of déja vu, perhaps.

551
00:54:11,600 --> 00:54:17,780
Although the narrator denies that the connection is necessarily anything so straightforward as having seen a similar line of trees before.

552
00:54:18,620 --> 00:54:22,640
But this sense of familiarity very much fits the description of non declarative memory.

553
00:54:23,060 --> 00:54:27,370
And furthermore, it serves to link together the two spheres of mental activity.

554
00:54:27,380 --> 00:54:35,300
The Post explores in great detail in his novel. But he doesn't himself unify involuntary memory triggered by trees or madeleines.

555
00:54:35,510 --> 00:54:41,300
And on the other hand, the process of habituation by which the unfamiliar gradually becomes familiar.

556
00:54:44,410 --> 00:54:48,220
The idea of non associative learning, which you had mentioned earlier,

557
00:54:48,790 --> 00:54:55,510
of which habituation and sensitisation form symmetrical parts comes as much from the study of animals as if humans.

558
00:54:55,960 --> 00:55:00,880
If you place a stuffed owl in a cage full of songbirds, the birds would exhibit signs of distress.

559
00:55:01,240 --> 00:55:03,370
If you do so regularly over a period of time,

560
00:55:03,520 --> 00:55:10,780
the response of the songbirds will gradually diminish in intensity over time as they become habituated to the stuffed owl's presence.

561
00:55:11,860 --> 00:55:17,920
Here is post telling about telling us about his narrator's own stuffed owl experience.

562
00:55:18,610 --> 00:55:22,960
The narrator spending a sleepless night in his first night in a hotel room at Baalbek.

563
00:55:23,290 --> 00:55:28,300
And what troubles him is the fact that the ceiling above his bed is higher than he's used to.

564
00:55:29,440 --> 00:55:34,300
He says it's those parts of us, even the most insubstantial and obscure of them,

565
00:55:34,510 --> 00:55:38,920
such as our attachment to the dimensions or the atmosphere of a particular room which take fright,

566
00:55:39,430 --> 00:55:47,140
withhold consent and engage in rebellions which must be seen as a covert and partial, yet tangible and true mode of resistance to death.

567
00:55:47,890 --> 00:55:54,070
That lengthy, desperate, daily resistance to the sporadic but non-stop dying which attends us throughout our lives,

568
00:55:54,370 --> 00:56:02,110
stripping off bits of us at every moment which, if no sooner, mortified, the new cells begin to grow for a nervous disposition such as mine,

569
00:56:02,260 --> 00:56:06,070
that is one in which the functioning of the intermediaries, the nerves is impaired,

570
00:56:06,280 --> 00:56:11,499
so that they fail to stifle the voice of the lowliest elements of self doom and the deceased and their harrowing,

571
00:56:11,500 --> 00:56:16,330
many headed lament in all its sorrow rises unmuted to the wearied ears of consciousness.

572
00:56:16,960 --> 00:56:21,430
The anguish and alarm I felt when lying beneath a ceiling that was unknown and too high was

573
00:56:21,430 --> 00:56:26,770
nothing but the protest of my surviving attachment to a ceiling which was known and lower.

574
00:56:27,430 --> 00:56:31,240
No doubt that detachment would end and be replaced by another first death.

575
00:56:31,540 --> 00:56:35,860
Then a new life would have done the dual work at the behest of habit.

576
00:56:37,680 --> 00:56:45,280
So what's going on here with the talk of death here and as elsewhere, post is expounding his idea of serial selves.

577
00:56:45,280 --> 00:56:51,570
So when he says resistance to death, it's the resistance. The death of one of his many selves which is dying as a new one comes to life.

578
00:56:52,960 --> 00:56:59,080
So all SUVs die and new SUVs are born as metaphors for our personality changing through the course of life.

579
00:57:00,340 --> 00:57:07,960
So for post, habituation consists of the death of the self for which the high ceiling is unfamiliar and anxiety inducing,

580
00:57:08,230 --> 00:57:13,120
and its replacement by a new one born to whom the height of ceiling has come to seem normal.

581
00:57:14,840 --> 00:57:20,690
We can see the resolute materialist host who has no truck with souls turning to biology to

582
00:57:20,690 --> 00:57:26,390
explicate this mind in both a metaphorical sense with the dying and regrowing cells of the self,

583
00:57:26,630 --> 00:57:31,520
but also in a literal sense in his charming Edwardian neurology of his impaired nerves.

584
00:57:32,990 --> 00:57:39,560
The narrator's anxiety is caused not by a conscious comparison of the height of the hotel room ceiling with the height of the ceiling in his bedroom.

585
00:57:39,950 --> 00:57:47,750
This is his bedroom ceiling, not pictured, but still less by a memory image of lying in bed at home in his mind's eye.

586
00:57:47,900 --> 00:57:54,440
What first comes to consciousness is just a sense of unease, which he then has to analyse in order to find out its cause.

587
00:57:55,790 --> 00:57:59,780
Equally, the comforting sense of familiarity once you've become habituated,

588
00:57:59,930 --> 00:58:05,120
occurs without conscious reference to the memory of the previous experience on which this familiarity is founded.

589
00:58:09,590 --> 00:58:14,959
In English modernism, too. And I'm venturing a little out of my cultural my comfort zone.

590
00:58:14,960 --> 00:58:19,040
Now, as I move into English literature for the rest of the talk English modernism,

591
00:58:19,280 --> 00:58:24,020
we find copious reference to the effects of non declarative memory on the conscious mind.

592
00:58:25,010 --> 00:58:29,389
Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse proposes a detailed account of its protagonist's

593
00:58:29,390 --> 00:58:33,890
mental activity on the two days a decade apart in which its action unfolds.

594
00:58:34,400 --> 00:58:39,980
And the narrative is structured by memories, declarative and otherwise, which connect different points in time.

595
00:58:41,690 --> 00:58:47,270
Lily Briscoe is wordlessly moved as she stands before the scene she painted ten years before,

596
00:58:48,200 --> 00:58:51,860
in which Mrs. Ramsay had been framed in the drawing room window.

597
00:58:52,010 --> 00:58:56,930
Mrs. Ramsay, who now ten years later, is dead. And this is what goes through Lily Briscoe's mind.

598
00:58:58,450 --> 00:59:03,010
For. How could one express in words these emotions of the body express that emptiness there?

599
00:59:03,460 --> 00:59:06,850
She was looking at the drawing room steps. They looked extraordinarily empty.

600
00:59:07,420 --> 00:59:13,209
It was one's body feeling, not one's mind. The physical sensations that went with the bear look at the steps had become

601
00:59:13,210 --> 00:59:18,340
suddenly extremely unpleasant to want and not to have sent all up her body.

602
00:59:18,490 --> 00:59:25,719
A hardness, a hollowness, a strain. Like most and his siblings,

603
00:59:25,720 --> 00:59:30,310
Wolff does have her character develop away from this inchoate emotion towards

604
00:59:30,310 --> 00:59:33,310
a conscious understanding of the comparison between the past and the present,

605
00:59:33,310 --> 00:59:39,590
which has given rise to it. In fact, the sequence ends a little bit later with Lilly's exclamation thought or spoken.

606
00:59:39,940 --> 00:59:44,200
Oh, Mrs. Ramsay. So she realises that it's the absence of Mrs. Ramsey which is causing that feeling.

607
00:59:45,460 --> 00:59:52,720
But just as Post's narrator's conscious thought, the ceiling is too high is the result of his anxiety and not the cause of it.

608
00:59:53,020 --> 00:59:59,050
So Lilly's awareness that she's unhappy because of Mrs. Ramsey's absence comes after she's experienced this emotion.

609
01:00:01,490 --> 01:00:05,420
Non declarative memory appears with shorter time spans in Woolf's novel, too,

610
01:00:05,720 --> 01:00:09,530
and in phenomena, we might be less inclined to label memory in the conventional sense.

611
01:00:10,490 --> 01:00:19,370
Priming, as we've heard, is defined as an implicit memory effect, whereby exposure to an earlier stimulus affects response to a later one.

612
01:00:20,810 --> 01:00:23,660
We see something at least similar.

613
01:00:23,660 --> 01:00:29,630
I would go as far as to say to this effect on several occasions into the lighthouse where characters appear to have been primed.

614
01:00:29,840 --> 01:00:36,530
A comment spoken appears to have been primed by something which happened earlier in the day, so early in the novel.

615
01:00:36,770 --> 01:00:42,020
Among Mrs. Ramsay's idle daytime thoughts is a fleeting indignation about milk.

616
01:00:42,800 --> 01:00:48,680
She's thinking something else, she says, she thinks to herself. Milk delivered at your door in London, positively brown with dirt.

617
01:00:48,920 --> 01:00:51,950
It should be made illegal. And then she moves on to something else.

618
01:00:53,270 --> 01:01:01,700
That evening at dinner, they crops up in conversation, a complaint about the state of English coffee upon which Mrs. Ramsay seizes control

619
01:01:01,700 --> 01:01:06,110
of the whole gathering to deliver a milk based rant to general mocking hilarity.

620
01:01:06,980 --> 01:01:10,040
Then, said Mr. Banks, there is that liquid to the English call. Coffee.

621
01:01:10,940 --> 01:01:14,180
Oh, coffee, said Mrs. Ramsay. But it was much rather a question.

622
01:01:14,390 --> 01:01:21,470
She was thoroughly roused, led. He could see and talked very emphatically of real butter and clean milk, speaking with warmth and eloquence.

623
01:01:21,710 --> 01:01:26,270
She described the iniquity of the English dairy system and in what state milk was delivered to the door.

624
01:01:28,550 --> 01:01:33,350
Now we're in Lily Briscoe's mind again, rather than Mrs. Ramsay's at this point.

625
01:01:33,470 --> 01:01:40,100
So we don't actually see in the novel the mental activity that's prompted Mrs. Ramsay to come out with these words.

626
01:01:40,940 --> 01:01:47,120
And it may be that a declarative memory comes to her mind. She remembers back to that moment early in the day when she was thinking about milk.

627
01:01:47,300 --> 01:01:53,330
And she then makes a conscious decision to replay her earlier thoughts out loud for the benefit of the assembled guests.

628
01:01:54,290 --> 01:02:02,240
But here and other similar moments in the text, it's clear that we don't need to have any conscious memory of the earlier moment for this to work.

629
01:02:02,780 --> 01:02:04,010
It might simply be.

630
01:02:04,250 --> 01:02:11,780
Woolf is implying that her previous indignation has left the topic of substandard English milk delivery at the forefront of her mind,

631
01:02:12,080 --> 01:02:19,670
with the result that there's a ready association waiting to be made and when prompted by a similar subject, such as the inadequacy of English coffee.

632
01:02:20,300 --> 01:02:26,480
And as she sits down to dinner, Mrs. Ramsay is primed for a tirade, and she receives the requisite stimulus to supply one.

633
01:02:29,620 --> 01:02:38,620
Modern literature thus happily tackles mental flow phenomena at least related to habituation and priming as cognitive science describes them.

634
01:02:39,460 --> 01:02:45,670
What about other forms of non declarative memory, procedural memory, perhaps the proverbial memory of how to ride a bike,

635
01:02:45,970 --> 01:02:51,100
or the automatism that drives us our usual route home without any conscious effort on our part.

636
01:02:52,630 --> 01:02:57,190
And there must be interesting representations of procedural memory to be found in early literature, too.

637
01:02:57,190 --> 01:03:04,420
If we care to look perhaps in the well-groomed daily routine of Joyce's Leopold Bloom with his absent minded permutations around Dublin,

638
01:03:04,660 --> 01:03:08,920
allowing his feet to take him past Windmill Lane down Lime Street and across Townsend Street,

639
01:03:09,130 --> 01:03:13,120
while his mind remains otherwise occupied with the Hebrew alphabet and an old love affair.

640
01:03:13,990 --> 01:03:19,330
Or perhaps in the ritual futile repetitions of Samuel Beckett's bike riding, stone sucking,

641
01:03:19,330 --> 01:03:24,150
stepladder climbing toothbrushing, mud calling protagonists for whom habit is the great Stettner.

642
01:03:25,360 --> 01:03:28,840
We can certainly see procedure or memory in a more recent text.

643
01:03:29,020 --> 01:03:33,670
In McEwan's 21st century novel, 21st Century neuro novel Saturday,

644
01:03:34,690 --> 01:03:39,639
which takes us moment by moment through an neurosurgeons weekend with particular

645
01:03:39,640 --> 01:03:43,900
focus on the subjective experience and the neural activity that may underlie it.

646
01:03:44,770 --> 01:03:52,570
Here, for instance, is the muscle memory of movement and gesture in sport, taking over from conscious decision making during a game of squash.

647
01:03:54,350 --> 01:04:00,440
It's possible in a long rally to become a virtually unconscious being inhabiting the narrowest slice of the present.

648
01:04:00,710 --> 01:04:04,700
Merely reacting, taking one shot at a time. Existing only to keep going.

649
01:04:05,180 --> 01:04:10,010
Peron is already at that state, digging in deep when he remembers he's supposed to have a game plan.

650
01:04:10,430 --> 01:04:17,150
And that's a short extract from, in fact, a very long account of game of squash, which has all kinds of references to unconscious behaviour.

651
01:04:19,210 --> 01:04:22,310
And I want to move on briskly from procedural memory, though,

652
01:04:22,330 --> 01:04:30,580
because there is one final facet of non declarative memory that made such a mark on 20th century literature that it demands the remaining time.

653
01:04:30,580 --> 01:04:36,850
I have to examine it, and I'm talking about psychological conditioning and the three great 20th century novels of conditioning,

654
01:04:37,090 --> 01:04:40,270
Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, George Orwell's 1984.

655
01:04:40,570 --> 01:04:49,300
And Anthony Burgess is A Clockwork Orange. So conditioning in psychology is divided into classical conditioning,

656
01:04:49,600 --> 01:04:56,650
exemplified by Pavlov that we have a nice example of Pavlov's dogs in which association is created between two stimuli,

657
01:04:56,890 --> 01:05:02,290
such as a bell and dinner in Pavlov's experiments, with the result that the conditioned organism,

658
01:05:02,290 --> 01:05:08,620
the condition dog's usual response to dinner drooling will over time become a response to the bell alone.

659
01:05:10,150 --> 01:05:15,910
Classical conditioning generally works with reflex responses. It attaches an existing response to a new stimulus.

660
01:05:16,930 --> 01:05:24,219
Operant conditioning. The central idea of the BEHAVIOURISM movement within 20th century psychology involves the modification of behaviour through a

661
01:05:24,220 --> 01:05:30,940
system of repeated rewards and punishments consequent to actions to reinforce desired behaviour and diminish the undesired.

662
01:05:30,940 --> 01:05:35,830
And that it has a slightly more, I think, difficult relationship to the idea of unconscious memory,

663
01:05:36,220 --> 01:05:40,180
which involves quite a lot of of conscious activity and conscious thought as well.

664
01:05:41,590 --> 01:05:43,690
So I've given you some extracts from these three novels.

665
01:05:43,700 --> 01:05:48,340
I've given you quite extensive extracts, in fact, in case you're interested in looking at the context of them after.

666
01:05:48,580 --> 01:05:52,360
But I'm going to just pick out the the sections in bold.

667
01:05:54,490 --> 01:05:57,670
His Brave New World in this novel.

668
01:05:58,210 --> 01:06:01,750
Conditioning Begun begins before consciousness has even fully developed.

669
01:06:02,050 --> 01:06:06,220
Lab grown embryos are conditioned to adapt to the working environments they're destined for.

670
01:06:06,610 --> 01:06:13,300
So embryonic workers who are heading for the tropics, alternate periods of high temperature with a combined dose of coolness and x rays,

671
01:06:13,720 --> 01:06:20,380
future zero gravity workers are rotated in their flasks as they developing and starved of nutrients whenever the flask is the right way up.

672
01:06:20,950 --> 01:06:27,520
And the result is you get tropical workers who shun cooler climes and you get rocket repair teams who are equipped,

673
01:06:27,820 --> 01:06:29,980
only truly happy when they're standing on their heads.

674
01:06:31,420 --> 01:06:40,690
This is not giving you here, though, is about young children, where a bunch of infants are born into a room which has flowers and books.

675
01:06:40,960 --> 01:06:51,740
They crawl towards the books and then loud noises and electric shocks are used to inculcate them with an enduring aversion to books and flowers.

676
01:06:51,820 --> 01:06:56,080
So here's an extract from that piece. Offer them the flowers and books again.

677
01:06:56,560 --> 01:07:03,520
The nurse is obeyed. But at the approach of the roses, at the mere sight of those gaily coloured images of pussy and cockatoo and baba black sheep,

678
01:07:03,730 --> 01:07:09,940
the infants shrank away in horror. The volume of the howling suddenly increased, observes the director, triumphantly.

679
01:07:10,030 --> 01:07:16,090
Observe books and loud noises, flowers and electric shocks already in the infant mind.

680
01:07:16,330 --> 01:07:23,020
These couples were compromising. They linked. And after 200 repetitions of the same or a similar lesson would be wedded indissoluble.

681
01:07:23,350 --> 01:07:27,130
What man has joined? Nature is powerless to put asunder.

682
01:07:29,570 --> 01:07:36,620
This scene is very closely modelled on the notorious Little Albert experiments carried out by John B Watson,

683
01:07:37,010 --> 01:07:44,160
sometimes known as the father of behaviourism, in which a child who had demonstrated no previous fear of a white rat.

684
01:07:44,180 --> 01:07:45,350
I think that's him demonstrating.

685
01:07:45,350 --> 01:07:52,320
No previous fear was conditioned into an aversion by the repeated use of a loud noise when the animal was in his presence.

686
01:07:52,340 --> 01:07:56,690
I think Watson stood behind him and clanged two bits of metal together whenever the rat was there,

687
01:07:57,470 --> 01:08:03,680
an aversion that the child subsequently generalised to other furry animals and even a fur coat, according to the experimenters claims.

688
01:08:06,640 --> 01:08:09,670
Second piece of conditioning. Here's O'Brien.

689
01:08:09,670 --> 01:08:14,920
In 1984, discussing the rationale behind the conditioning process Winston Smith is undergoing

690
01:08:15,070 --> 01:08:19,090
in the Ministry of Love to convert him from thought criminal to party faithful.

691
01:08:20,260 --> 01:08:24,280
We're not content with negative obedience, nor even with the most abject submission.

692
01:08:24,640 --> 01:08:27,910
When finally you surrender to us, it must be of your own free will.

693
01:08:28,270 --> 01:08:33,010
We do not destroy a heretic because he resists us. So long as they resist us, we never destroy him.

694
01:08:33,250 --> 01:08:36,700
We convert him. We capture his inner mind, we reshape him.

695
01:08:37,030 --> 01:08:44,140
We burn all evil and all illusion out of him. We bring him over to our side, not in appearance, but genuinely heart and soul.

696
01:08:44,500 --> 01:08:52,389
We make him one of ourselves before we kill him. Orwell's less explicit than the other two about the details of the process.

697
01:08:52,390 --> 01:08:58,950
His protagonist undergoes to reverse his attitude towards the regime, but certainly, certainly not all of its unconscious room.

698
01:08:58,960 --> 01:09:03,040
One in particular involves the conscious decision to betray Julia,

699
01:09:03,280 --> 01:09:06,849
and its effectiveness in destroying the bond between them relies on the

700
01:09:06,850 --> 01:09:10,540
declarative memory of this betrayal remaining forever in breach of consciousness.

701
01:09:11,050 --> 01:09:16,030
But the program Winston undergoes before he reaches that point is based on the Association of Torture,

702
01:09:16,030 --> 01:09:23,050
with heretical thought torture that very often bypasses consciousness and continuing after its victim has been pushed into delirium.

703
01:09:24,410 --> 01:09:30,530
And lastly, his Alex and A Clockwork Orange discussing with his captors the treatment which involves injecting

704
01:09:30,530 --> 01:09:35,570
him with drugs that make him feel extremely ill while simultaneously showing him images of violence.

705
01:09:36,710 --> 01:09:40,850
You're making me feel ill. I'm ill. When I look at those filthy pervert films of yours.

706
01:09:41,270 --> 01:09:47,300
But it's not really the films that's doing it. But I feel that if you'll stop those films, these films, I'll stop feeling ill.

707
01:09:47,840 --> 01:09:52,490
Right. Said Dr. Brodsky. It's association, the oldest educational method in the world.

708
01:09:53,360 --> 01:10:00,470
We can get this stuff of Ludovico because the drugs which are making you feel sick into your system in many different ways orally, for instance.

709
01:10:00,650 --> 01:10:03,770
But the subcutaneous method is the best. Don't fight against it, please.

710
01:10:03,920 --> 01:10:08,360
There's no point in your fighting. You can't get the better of us. You're not cured yet.

711
01:10:08,600 --> 01:10:13,340
There's still a lot to be done. Only when your body reacts promptly and violently to violence.

712
01:10:13,460 --> 01:10:16,820
As to a snake. Without further help from us. Without medication.

713
01:10:17,180 --> 01:10:25,200
Only then. Burgess explicitly calls A Clockwork Orange a novel about brainwashing.

714
01:10:25,740 --> 01:10:31,710
And he adds the interesting corollary that it's not only through the conditioning of Alex that the reader is to experience this

715
01:10:32,550 --> 01:10:39,630
nascent Burgess's invented teen slang based on Russian is intended to give the readers a little taste of brainwashing for themselves.

716
01:10:40,530 --> 01:10:46,020
He says not that was meant to turn Clockwork Orange into, among other things, a brainwashing primer.

717
01:10:46,590 --> 01:10:48,120
You read the book or see the film,

718
01:10:48,390 --> 01:10:54,600
and at the end you should find yourself in possession of a minimal Russian vocabulary without effort, with surprise.

719
01:10:54,960 --> 01:11:03,360
This is the way brainwashing works. There's something else, though, that sets Burgess's conditioning apart from the other two examples.

720
01:11:03,810 --> 01:11:09,270
It doesn't work when Alex, he's goaded to suicide by one of his former victims.

721
01:11:09,450 --> 01:11:13,409
And when he wakes in hospital after this failed suicide attempt, he finds himself to have been,

722
01:11:13,410 --> 01:11:18,990
in his words, cured of the conditioning with his inhibitions towards Beethoven and ultraviolence.

723
01:11:19,080 --> 01:11:26,520
Now removed Burgess's commentary on this ending counters behaviourist doctrine from the perspective of his own Christian belief.

724
01:11:27,510 --> 01:11:34,530
He says, What my and Kubrick's parable tries to state is that it's preferable to have a world of violence undertaken in full awareness.

725
01:11:34,740 --> 01:11:38,880
Violence chosen as an act of will than a world condition is to be good or harmless.

726
01:11:39,450 --> 01:11:46,770
B.F. Skinner, who is the pupil of Watson, in fact, and came to be the most prominent advocate of behaviourism in the mid-twentieth century.

727
01:11:47,370 --> 01:11:53,730
SKINNER With his ability to believe that there's something beyond freedom and dignity, wants to see the death of Autonomous Man.

728
01:11:54,390 --> 01:12:01,410
He may or may not be right. But in terms of the Judeo-Christian ethic that A Clockwork Orange tries to express, he's perpetrating a gross heresy.

729
01:12:01,920 --> 01:12:05,970
The wish to diminish free will is, I should think, the sin against the Holy Ghost.

730
01:12:08,160 --> 01:12:16,650
So in Orwell's and Huxley's Material World and their novels, the mind is as malleable as the brain on which it's the province.

731
01:12:17,220 --> 01:12:25,790
For the Catholic Burgess, though, the essence of the self lies beyond the reach of any conditioning imprint because it's in an immaterial soul.

732
01:12:28,420 --> 01:12:33,130
The term behaviourist novel has got some currency in literary criticism in French studies.

733
01:12:33,370 --> 01:12:35,799
It's particularly connected to the critic Claudette Mont.

734
01:12:35,800 --> 01:12:41,260
Many, but when we use it, it tends to get applied to novelists like Ernest Hemingway or John Dos Passos,

735
01:12:41,560 --> 01:12:47,740
who offer an exclusively external perspective on their characters without affording the reader any access to their subjectivity.

736
01:12:48,520 --> 01:12:56,740
The suggestion is that external narrative perspectives we call the behaviourists out lowering of consciousness as a fit subject for scientific study,

737
01:12:57,190 --> 01:13:01,630
insisting, as they did, that only observable behaviour was proper evidence for psychology.

738
01:13:03,010 --> 01:13:09,190
Evidence for a link between behaviours thought and right. Between behaviour, thought and writing like Hemingway's is actually rather dubious.

739
01:13:09,880 --> 01:13:14,350
Visual storytelling in the cinema seems a much more likely contender to be the important influence there.

740
01:13:15,280 --> 01:13:19,990
The real behaviour is novelists of the 20th century are surely Burgess,

741
01:13:20,200 --> 01:13:26,350
Orwell and Huxley with their explorations of free will overridden by an acquired response to stimulus.

742
01:13:28,120 --> 01:13:31,990
While it's classical Pavlovian conditioning that falls most clearly within non declarative memory,

743
01:13:32,140 --> 01:13:36,850
as the conditioned reflex is contained, created and maintained without any recourse to conscious thought.

744
01:13:37,720 --> 01:13:41,830
All of these novels present their conditioning classic or operant in similar terms.

745
01:13:42,130 --> 01:13:46,870
Once the lessons learned, there's no conscious recall of the teaching required to produce the effect.

746
01:13:47,470 --> 01:13:51,970
Rather, it manifests in all three of these as an instinctive, visceral reaction,

747
01:13:52,240 --> 01:13:56,230
seeming in some cases to the character concerned, to be more of a physical than a mental phenomenon.

748
01:13:58,480 --> 01:13:59,440
So to conclude,

749
01:13:59,920 --> 01:14:08,470
once we start looking for unconscious memory redefined from the psychoanalytic understanding to refer to the various forms of non declarative memory,

750
01:14:09,400 --> 01:14:14,380
we find representations of it, or something very like it widely in modern Western literature.

751
01:14:15,460 --> 01:14:21,430
The concept might be a relatively recent one in psychology, but it's been a major theme in European literature throughout the last century.

752
01:14:21,820 --> 01:14:27,370
Habituation, priming, procedural memory and conditioning all play a role in the 20th century novel.

753
01:14:28,150 --> 01:14:32,710
Sometimes there's intentional engagement on the writer's part with contemporary scientific research.

754
01:14:32,950 --> 01:14:40,240
As we saw in today's newer novelists like McEwan or in the novels of Conditioning in the mid-century heyday of behaviourist psychology.

755
01:14:41,140 --> 01:14:47,440
Often, though, these writers are describing subjective phenomena the anxiety of unfamiliar surroundings,

756
01:14:47,620 --> 01:14:55,030
the lingering thought triggered back to life in conversation, coming from their own author's experience without any reference to formal psychology.

757
01:14:56,410 --> 01:15:01,840
None of the writers before the twenties, before the 21st century refers to any of these phenomena as memory.

758
01:15:02,680 --> 01:15:09,040
That term is used exclusively for declarative memory, as throughout the 20th century it was, and as largely it still is.

759
01:15:09,970 --> 01:15:16,180
But while they might not have labelled these various forms of mental activity as memory, they examine their functioning closely,

760
01:15:16,450 --> 01:15:22,840
and they depicted in lucid detail the subjective experience of habituation, priming, conditioning and related processes.

761
01:15:24,190 --> 01:15:28,180
These representations not only offer us a record of Qualia, as David Locke just put it,

762
01:15:28,420 --> 01:15:33,129
expressing how it feels for your past experience to modify your present sense without

763
01:15:33,130 --> 01:15:36,880
conscious awareness of what's being remembered for us as readers and critics.

764
01:15:37,120 --> 01:15:43,840
This new definition of unconscious memory allows us to draw new connections between psychological phenomena represented in literature.

765
01:15:44,200 --> 01:15:51,099
Ceiling, height, anxiety, milkman irritation, squash games and total totalitarian torture all brought together for the first

766
01:15:51,100 --> 01:15:55,810
time as the subjective manifestations of related kinds of mental activity.

767
01:15:57,160 --> 01:16:00,370
And once we connect these phenomena through contemporary neuroscience,

768
01:16:00,730 --> 01:16:04,780
we can see that in fact they're already connected thematically in the texts themselves.

769
01:16:05,350 --> 01:16:12,969
Collectively, these episodes I've been discussing form the subject matter for a debate held by these 20th century writers inside their story,

770
01:16:12,970 --> 01:16:20,020
worlds among the characters and outside them with their readers. A debate as to how far the conscious mind is in control.

771
01:16:20,860 --> 01:16:27,250
In each of these examples, in a variety of different ways, we've seen the past act upon the present self without the subject's awareness.

772
01:16:27,820 --> 01:16:31,150
Often the actions undesired, sometimes it affects a permanent change.

773
01:16:31,720 --> 01:16:37,420
As readers, our attention is drawn to mental activity occurring outside consciousness involuntarily,

774
01:16:37,630 --> 01:16:40,660
yet having sometimes profound effects on mood or personality.

775
01:16:42,040 --> 01:16:47,859
All these texts point us towards the mind that exists beyond the sphere of conscious awareness and

776
01:16:47,860 --> 01:16:53,590
throw into doubt any suggestion that the conscious mind might be the unchallenged master of the self.

777
01:16:54,160 --> 01:16:55,180
Thank you for.