So, yeah, well, there was there was never really planned to to to also be the act of speaker.
I really felt very, very comfortable just inviting friends and colleagues from all over the world to talk about their research,
sort of taking it in as I'm still in the process of working my way through my own research.
However, I think it was fate. One of our speakers was just finishing his dissertation, asked me to postpone his talk.
And so I said, OK, well, let's just present what I have in store at the moment.
And so this is my work in progress research and a brief part of it.
And, yeah, I'm I want to talk you through my perspective of Tim in a very general sense, and then in the second part on the term of Holtom.
So here's a brief overview of what I'm going to talk about and start out with a discussion about the semantic field of Tim.
The second part will be about the various sources and connotations of Tim during the so-called Tibetan empire and the age of fragmentation.
And in my last big block,
I got to talk about the Sakia Mongol periods of 13th century to the 14th century and want to share with you my perspective of what constitutes Hawtin,
wrapping up with a brief conclusion. OK, get started.
As dear teacher, Pessah always started his lectures with the proverb,
I shall follow his footsteps and give you one of the most popular proverbs in regards to Tim,
which is that get him second guessing shooting Turkey Duba.
The royal tomb is heavy as the golden yoke the religious team binds like a circle.
Not as you can see. I left him here untranslated and want to go into various dictionaries and see what kind of translations we have for the term.
So Melvern Goldstein's dictionary on modern Tibetan gives us law or rule as a translation possibility.
We can see it here in a compound word to Kahlúa, meaning a magistrate or even Timkin mentioned by forensic medicine.
We go back in time a little bit. 19TH centuries. Yes. Guess dictionary gives it plenty of.
Translation possibilities that we have, right, custom duty, precept, decree, commandment,
and maybe one last from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the Dictionary of Literary Tibetan.
We can see the entries start with Bizet's photographed, which is law or precept,
and they work their way through Indian Tibetan translation literature.
Here we have a righteous person, good conduct or this example, 14th century Tuptim, the marble Tinchy Taiwan relativity.
So Latymer was in charge of government business and in the 17th century from data shows study on the legal documents that he found.
He even translated as monastic rules. So we have this abundant wealth of translation possibilities for fortune just by looking at some
dictionary entries and even the English term lore has a plethora of different connotations.
So it can be classified as a polytheistic category.
This is a term borrowed from Runnymede and it describes phenomena which say a great many attributes.
So rules norm implementation by judges, formulation by government enforcement mechanisms, links with social order.
Just as a jurisprudence.
However, as one of the three states, none of these examples have to be instantiated in every example of law in more simple terms.
Law can be understood as an intellectual as well as a functional or administrative system.
The question that I was asking myself is, so how much overlap is there between Tim and law or at least our Western understanding of it?
And I went back all the way to our first written sources into the Tibetan Empire, or shall we say the Pouliot dynasty, as many of you are aware,
they started out in the seventh century as a like small group who then enlarged the territory in all directions,
the self designation per becoming a temple, greater Tibet or the Tibetan Empire.
In this map, you can see the Tibetan empire at its largest extent.
So here we have the red dot, Lhasa to the south of it, in the yellow belly.
This is where it all began and they spread out.
To the outskirts of Mongolia, half of note is China even going into Persia?
The expansion was supported by a complex administrative system for assimilation of these various peoples that they
conquered and also facilitated the demand for resources in soldiers in Texas to provide for this ongoing expansion.
And regulations were done through a bureaucratic system that was based on writing.
So how do we know that? We have a few sources at our disposal.
We have the old Tibetan Chronicle and the author that knows we have stolen inscriptions and we
have legal documents found in the cache of Dunhuang manuscripts and Tokarski manuscript from NIYA,
which were described and found by Augustine.
And to give you a brief geographical location here and also a caveat, should I say we have here next to Cottan,
the area of Niya and then Dunhuang at the northern end of the Tibetan Empire, being also one of the way stations of the Northern superglued.
As you can see, these are the outskirts of the Tibetan empire.
So whatever evidence, whatever conclusions we may draw from these documents,
we have to be a bit careful if we can actually apply all our findings to what was happening in central Tibet at the time.
And to some visual representation to the left is the first page of the ultimate panels,
and in the middle we have the show stilly, which is in front of the Potala.
And here's the detail of the eastern inscription which talks about a minister's deeds and what he got in return.
So let's go into the sources themselves, the ultimate chronicle combines the rain of songs and gumbo with the beginning of rioting in Tibet,
and there was also a standardisation and division of official ranks punishments,
large distribution measurements, as well as the political and legislative system.
To give you an example, how this would look in in more practical terms, Frederick Thomas has shown that cadastral surveys were conducted.
And these are records of rights and land, and they recorded something like proceeding in a southern direction from Bergens land
reaches juniper land of tokens with one hundred SS and has boundary of the two can,
with the manual token fence proceeding in another direction, reaches the centre of it and just goes on and on and on.
So you see, it's a very, very detailed, a very dense record of what belongs to whom and what kind of assets and properties are on each owner's lands.
The Tibetan annuls refine the first statement a little bit and state it's actually not something,
Campbell, who introduced these measures, but rather his successor, Roland Martin.
So here we see that symbol, that is the emperor and his minister then convened a council and they divided
the populace into fears that US military and tame civilians and for their own,
they made the manuals for creating the great administration. And then the next year, the minister got songs and wrote the text of the Los.
In the following chapters of the two, we find the description of the organising territories being described as making it administration,
it was based on this manual created by a God something, and it served as a blueprint for Tibetan governance.
What developed out of this first initial? Step was a division of central Tibet into the so-called foghorns,
still Russi in the 8th century and this big administration units were organised into two parts,
into military and civil, continuing this initial team and fierce.
So on the military side, we have the tone there, which were overseen by a horn official,
Rukun and the agricultural areas, or you, they were headed by youthen.
So a official of the name of the area of the land who was in charge of one area,
who then was supervised by Deepend, who then was supervised by the minister of the interior.
And I would say that the structure suggests a very tight hierarchy and a clear separation of tasks and responsibilities.
The Rukun is in charge of anything, military conscription provision, etc., and the other half is in charge of getting the provision growing and etc.
And the apportionment of government power, I would argue, would prevent individuals from advancing within the system.
A later source from the 13th century even gives a brief definition of European
who is defined as the Tim Bass Tim guitar for the various social classes,
literally keeping the high ones in check and protected the lower ones.
And I would argue that he's the bearer of a social order and a representative of the emperor.
And so consequently, at least in theory, no interference in the emperor's tim was possible, thus ensuring the longevity of the empire.
And we also have evidence from these various manuscripts that I mentioned earlier,
and they employ regulations and guidelines for all kinds of legal claims since few of those in the audience probably know many of those.
I thought I'd give you a brief example of a lesser known one which talks about the postal system that was in place during the empire.
And it reads sort of sealed Imperia letter lost either the official poster to the way station or the travelling messenger must be turned the
way of the last letter to the way station had passed through and investigate whether or not the letter was lost at a previous way station.
When the returning messenger passes the station,
they have to determine if the letter actually went through the station or not and if it's actually true what the messenger says or not.
If upon examination of the dates of the SEALs on the letter, something inappropriate appears,
the messenger will forfeit his life and it carries on a little bit more, going more into detail.
That is the original was called classified as Pelote that are 12 19 in the Bibliotheque National Defence.
From other manuscripts, as Brendan Dodson has already investigated, we have a law of murder to me.
Tim Hlophe, guaranties or law for theft? We can also see from these law and legal documents a social stratification,
so compensation payments and punishment were meted out according to rank and senior,
and some in the already concluded Tim in the Tibetan Empire were primarily part of the regular administration and legal procedures.
However, the Tibetan empire declined and how it all came came about.
We know a little about, however, it's not well tested in contemporary primary sources, and most research drew on the post and period sources.
So he just a selection younger this religious history keeper deal, which religious history and also led by Panetoz Flower Garland.
In this post, simply resources and almost unanimously confirmed narrative developed that has been echoed by various writers.
If we look at this as a note, how this fragmentation of Tibet was brought about, it was due to the complacency of the last Imperial King Lang Dharma.
He describes the decay as follows. The churton that binds like a stick, not good, untied.
The golden yoke of the gittin was broken. The grass root that binds people together like stalks of wheat were cut asunder.
No, listen to his father, etc., etc. Tibet fragmented into individual pieces.
So this also goes back to the opening proverb, which sort of identifies an ideal state in this ideal state.
It's associated with the empire. And here in this description, it basically says due to the fact that the ideal state broke apart,
everything else sort of unfolded, eventually ending up in the fragmentation of Tibet into pieces.
A century later, the flower garland summarises the following events as such, London acted as King since did not know how to maintain the rule.
He divided with Sangma as a second the royal family into two lines.
And it gets interesting. He split the entire sphere of power into the item that is the upper Tim and made him the lower Tim or Western and Eastern.
The certain curtain of the Chewton was torn. The robe of the ruler was severed, the twin towers collapsed.
The Stone Stehly, with the edicts on them, toppled over.
And even later, sources compared this split into upper and lower to being like a hat and being like boots, and in between there's just fragments.
And to give you sort of an interesting conclusion here, posting period sources associated with the empire itself and thus primarily refer to the
territory ruled by the emperor term is used here more as an abstract umbrella term.
And Tim appears to have been developed in these Posten period sources as an underlying
concept without which the cohesion of an entire kingdom cannot be ensured.
This sort of reminded me a little of that was Stein's famous poem, Emily, and the line that probably most of you know,
a rose is a rose is a rose, which says that when the romantics used the image or the word rose, they associated it with the plant.
However, in later centuries,
it sort of became an archetypical term that sort of entailed the whole idea of the whole beauty and white way of life of the romantics.
And I think a similar thing happened to me as well, so the question is now, was there no law in Tibet after the fall of the empire?
So we have learnt from these sources that there was no improper left to govern central Tibet and the royal
lineage scattered to the east and to the west and influential clans assumed the role of local rulers.
And they also make use of the imperial land rights that they were bestowed.
The once powerful and expansionistic confederation of clans that constituted the Tibetan empire broke into pieces,
into petty strongholds, and each of these strongholds had their own rules and regulations.
They even had various measurements. And so one party would have a changa in some of its own code, varying between 11 kilograms and 18 kilograms.
You also needed to have sometimes a limit or sort of like the permission to go from one stronghold to the other.
Bit of a like a post Brexit vibe coming up and.
How these, like local things were organised, can be seen from an example of the yearning area.
So in 9th century, at the end of the Empire and the GIRLAND and the Jacklin were allocated to a border area called Unique.
Which is situated to the southwest of Alaska. And we find here that the girl and the girl had different responsibilities,
different tasks, so the undock, the girl, the patrons, they weren't trusted, the upper,
lower and middle lengths and all the subject of of other minor clans, such as the Day King,
etc. They also acted to all of them as the chief, including even the foreman communities.
The Jacklin who were in charge of the religious duties, they had three customs checks, some so to protect the land from harm by hail,
either caused by black magic or due to weather phenomena, and they've been entrusted as the guarantor for the force of gods and demons.
And so no harm should be done to fish, wild animals and foreigners, but rather support them.
And third, to keep the temples built by the emperors in good shape and offer martyrdoms.
What I found quite interesting when I when I came across this, the source, was that the specific order,
which sort of resembles a social administrative order, is he described as a tradition.
Or a custom tax and not as Tim as we would maybe associated with them what we just learnt of all those responsibilities,
and I would argue that these clowns could not claim royal status and the words and actions that would have the same validity as Tim.
The transition period from the empire towards the age of fragmentation was also described by
many Tibetan historians as the transformation from the earlier dissemination the mother of.
The Buddhist teachings towards the cheetah, the later dissemination of the teachings and keep audio.
Has a very specific view on this period, which is also known as the rekindling of the flame,
and he said that since the Jets and the royal team had disintegrated,
the fate of the people was hanging by a thread to and not of the Chewton or the religious tomb and.
I think is is quite a good example.
So he is he is one of many charismatic people that have been invited by the Tibetans to India or due to political circumstances,
would even flee from India towards Tibet.
Because they were invited with open arms and he accumulated a great deal of wealth as fees for performing rights and bestowing initiations,
and the Blue Angels even state that Martha appears to have continuously meditated on the ultimate essence.
But in the eyes of ordinary people, he had a family quarrel with his countrymen and only occupied himself with agriculture and building.
Um. The newfound local political stability through these very various petty strongholds revived the shattered
economy that was left by the decline of the Tibetan empire and temples that were once shut down,
reopened and even monasteries were newly built.
They became centres for pilgrimage and trade, and the founding figures of the Tibetan Buddhist schools attracted pilgrims,
new students and commercial travellers like Carl Yamamoto,
for instance, sees this as one of the main reasons for the cooperation between the clans and the religious leaders, just as we saw in the example.
He thinks that Clent initially saw in the monastic network a rival power.
But they became patrons of these new religious institutions because they
exploited the newly acquired wealth of the monasteries by securing clan members.
A place in the spiritual hierarchy and the new monasteries fortified by merchant wealth and aristocratic prestige,
provided a concrete, physical and social foundation.
And so this whole period, the 10th to 13th century is characteristic is the union of a religious and secular authority in one person.
Two examples would be the various local attempts to restore and type law and order,
or at least how these leaders envisioned it by Holomisa in the 11th century,
who try to create a new legal order in western Tibet and the temporal pre-eminence a century later of the Tepperman Lamaism over the valley and.
To give you another example of how they understood get'em in one of the announcements by Amazon,
we can read addressed to all sentient beings who now come under my protection and who fall under the jurisdiction of my gatta.
So his prominent role at the interface between the golden age of the Tibetan empire and the Mongol domination be going to come to in a second.
Soon after, his death was highlighted by one of his biographers, said technology.
He writes, in Tibet during Lama Junk's lifetime, the Tibetan kings get him collapsed and the time of the Mongol get him had not yet come.
And Tibet was in fragments.
So that is my my first block, and I would now want to share with you more details about my primary area of expertise and research,
the 13th and 14th century, which was characterised by the Mongol domination over Tibet.
OK. So, um, a few things before I continue on the bottom of my PowerPoint, I put this little timeline for you and so.
I have this, like dual education in both Tibetan history and Mongul history,
and I wouldn't expect you all to know so much detail about the Mongul history.
Therefore, I put all the emphasis or people who were.
Important for Tibetan history on the timeline, highlighting the ones that are active at the time that I'm talking about.
OK, so the Mongols come in the middle a 13th century and in the Jenson's, Gotham or Testament,
we can read that during the time of the two uncle and nephew, the Mongol authority began.
So this is how I chose to translate it to heart being the then designation for the Mongols.
Until I understand as authority the Mongols thought and acted as military commander and settled at the railway station when Jim puts it,
which was the then abbot of the Digo monastery arrived at London time.
Come, a daughter had seised the Gompa second attention and began preparations for his execution.
So the COMPAR is the local counterpart in charge of everyday administration to the religious authority of this thing.
I would say the single embassy was the uncle to second and hence uncle, a nephew in the first line.
Because that singer had made an invocation to the goddess Tarah. A rain of stones fell from the sky and my daughter said, You're a good one.
Then he paid his respects and boat to his head, to his feet.
He offered him the gumperz life and an accounting of the household,
of the settled population of Pamoja and Deagle tax payments and the acquiescence to the Mongols were accepted.
Um, I have already analysed this very interesting linguistic section here, and I just want to go over a few key things.
So first person in my translation here and also in accordance with the GOP's analysis,
it's the settled population and we even have some good evidence for that.
So the foremost historical source for anything, Mongul for the 13th century would be the so-called secret history of the Mongols.
And we can read in paragraph two hundred and three.
Chingis Hand ordering one of his attendants divide up all the subject people and apportion them to our mother,
to us, to our younger brothers and sons, according to the name of the people,
that is whether they have a nomadic or a settled or agricultural lifestyle splitting up those that live in failed war tents,
separating those that live in dwellings with windows. So I think that is what personal here refers to.
Furthermore, writing in a blue register,
all decisions about the distribution and about the judicial matters of the entire population make it into a book.
I would say we again see the Mongolian version of the cadastral survey that was so important in the Tibetan Empire.
Thomas Edison, who is the foremost expert on the Mongol imperialism,
also concludes that census taking was the key to Mongol efforts to mobilise the human and financial resources of the seven regions of the empire.
The object of the registration was to facilitate the assessment of Texas to
identify skilled craftsmen and technicians and to recruit military personnel.
All in line to support the growing Mongol empire and their expansions.
The second one is pablum, which I would translate as tax payments were settled and in the 17th century history of Tibet by the Dalai Lama.
He also picks up on this story from the SEETO and he writes, posting 10 pages long.
So all those with the Tibet wooden door, the vast majority of those, they had to be text.
The last one is what I say. So then I found a suggested submission to the Mongols.
However, in a more recent study, renders it as acquiescence or appeasement,
referring to existing alternatives such as Saqba or goodbar for submission or surrender.
I haven't really made up my mind 100 percent yet because it's just something that I wanted to throw out you maybe for later discussion.
And a brief mention on the Mongolian side of things during this period,
so each new conquest and started watching us on and then continuing on was followed by a modification of its administration,
mostly through impromptu ordered issued by cheating as.
More studies sort of doubt the existence of a written legal text from this period, which is usually called the desk or in Tibetan sources, just jassa.
The general consensus of all these studies seems to be that it was probably a collection of these ad hoc orders.
However, nobody really knows whether it was written down or just passed on orally.
So only after his successor, O'Callahan,
who came to understand better ways of profiting from the century agricultural and commercial people his father had conquered,
could they start this exploitation more strictly?
Again, the secret history of the Mongols and states sitting now on the throne made very
by our father to hunt so that people do not suffer every year from these people.
One two year old sheep out of every flock shall be given as Lévy fall asleep for.
I would understand as a provision and.
Also, a brief note on the Mongolian self understanding that there's only one Supreme Court that is the eternal blue sky heaven.
Tingley And due to this belief or due to this conception,
it follows that there can only be one supreme rule on Earth to whom all other rulers are required to submit and pay tribute.
The residual sources and Chinese chronicles have described this as the sixth duties,
and these are the demands that the Mongols saw appropriate due to the fact that they
were the only group on Earth and everybody else had to submit to their authority.
So I would say what we can see here is Holtom.
We have a few surviving edicts from other parts of the empire.
And my preliminary observation observation is that Tibet.
Especially in the beginning of the Mongol Empire and wasn't treated any different than other parts that were subsumed,
such as Goyo, which would be a modern day Korea or a modern day Vietnam.
This also applies to Armenia, to Russia and Persia, etc. And in this edict to UNAM,
we can read whole command of our ground pertaining to the emperor watching this heart from the kingdoms which submit to our authority.
The ruler has to come personally to court. Sansone and younger brother should be sent as hostages, as censorship.
Organised troops should be provided. Taxes should be collected.
Moreover, it should be established to administer the territory.
To fulfil this list shows the profound righteousness of those who submit to our authority.
And Thomas Edison also recognised in these two edicts,
a basic blueprint of the method of controlling and exploiting the sedentary population of the empire.
What is the secret history of the Mongols?
Defines it as a resident commissioner. And what is quite interesting in this section is that significant wouldn't really know
how to how to deal with the conquered cities due to the fact that they were nomads.
They wouldn't know the laws and customs of cities.
And so he was adequately informed to these customs and then appointed the people who he saw fit and where
depth in the laws and customs of cities and alongside a Mongol delegate or a resident commissioner.
So these demands also apply to Tibet, however, the ruler, the king of Tibet.
Who would that be? Um.
As we saw in the Taishi, to quote earlier, it was the singer reimported singer Zapata,
who was first approached by the Mongols and a later source, it was suggested that he himself should go.
However, he didn't really want to or whatever his his reasons were, but suggested the second Banita instead.
And so we have further evidence from some of the letters. We have a gift accompanying letter describing the immense power of the Mongols and announces
that envoys have already been sent on the way to Sakia carrying an official order.
I think this is the so-called invitation of the second Pennetta that is tested in later sources.
Just check the time. The singer mentioned the steady and increasing power of the Mongols in a second
letter and urges such a Panopto to go to the border area and start negotiation.
He reminds them that there is this looming threat that he and his monastic
community will be killed by the Mongols if they do not comply and cooperate,
had to lobby, seek approval from various dignitaries in central Tibet because there was no one who could claim to.
Nobody could claim like Tibetan authority. And so in another letter like Katumba Tanaka, who posed a few questions, why did penitential be selected?
We can read first question, what qualities of realisation do you possess?
And then is there any beneficial reasons for your going to the Mongols?
So that is definitely a question of like, are you old enough to do that?
As Parcell Johnson, in his monumental work rules of celestial planes already concluded,
we have equal and largely autonomous regional polities, and I quote,
in an epoch bereft of a stable or durable centralised authority for the political orientation, therefore was quintessentially the centralistic.
The following events we can read from mousepox geneology of the Zacchaeus, which even says that Lord Lord Cuttone,
who was the Mongol authority to the Tibetans, to the Tibetans at the time, wanted a representative in Tibet and invited a good lama to come.
He then withdrew the army and said to bring Tibet under control, we need to fill it with hundreds of Tibetans loyal to us.
Panopto was sent on his way and took his two nephews, which served also as hostages with him.
And in his sixty fifth year he arrived in the nowadays Luxo or Jungle and met with the Prince,
the Mongol prince in the following year, who then said Bring you two nephews with you, show great trust in us.
And Lord Kryten was pleased. Let me just skip over this because of time restraints that let me see, OK, right.
So just to just to skip forward a little bit, negotiations were placed second hand,
did not return to Tibet, unfortunately, but his two nephews, Pacta Lama and technology, they were sent.
To the Mongul court and then later dispatched to Tibet, and they were acting as officials of the Mongol Empire to rule in Tibet.
And so a lot of measures were introduced and in the in the following years, a lot of reorganisation took place in the initial Russi layout,
I would argue was adopted also by the Mongols and various Mongol princess were appointed to be like householders to the various districts.
And so here we have a letter by October from the paratrooper.
Who writes to people, I can see that he has shown favour to all the envoys for this, all of our teachers are in your debt on our part.
We shall make aspiration prayers for all the royal line on the Mongol side to the best of our abilities.
We shall hold an honest mentality towards your authority. However,
as he goes on in his letter that all these new measures that were introduced to Tibet wasn't to his
satisfaction and especially the cadastre survey which established Borders wasn't to his liking.
And he thought that his neighbours would have gotten the bigger share.
So he requests to transfer one of the taxable households under its supervision.
And he then says if the request is found unreasonable, then this school of ours will have a large name,
but a small body will not keep up with our counterpart and appear not to be capable.
And then we can see there's this there's a real rise in in in confirmation letters,
in edicts that are now introduced as a consequence of the moral authority.
So Pogba here is writing at the behest of the emperor, reminds exemptions that were granted to the Mongols throughout the whole Mongol empire.
And the document is followed by a lot of border settlement details.
So he is just a few. So all of these lands, areas, estates and monasteries, no one shall take away any of these or drive away the owners,
nor shall they do a single thing that amounts to a contestation. This is the original photograph by Peter.
And so legal documents is something that now become more important and with the results of the census of the 60s,
new official posts were installed such as the post of the Myriad or the people, and they were also establishing new measurements.
So the census used the data as the basic text unit here, few details of what a holiday consists of.
And it also had to have a strip of land sufficient for selling 12 bushels of Moghuls seat.
So that is a new measurement. What was also important, as we can see from the 15th century genealogy of the Jungleland duckbill,
since it was necessary that one kowtowed to the Mongol Empire, the lot fell on the line of Tokugawa as he had neither a son or a nephew.
He plans to go to China himself. And another source, the clear mirror of raging allergies and other Tibetan archives from the 15th century,
possibly we can read that even in the 12th 80s,
the pension gap, people from December was appointed as ruler and took over from his father by the age of 18,
had to go to the Mongolians to get everything confirmed. And it is reported that he received a lot of presents,
as well as an edict acknowledging all taxable households from previous times you returned to Tibet and had control over the kingdom.
However, as it goes on and of source, the abbot of Israel would not give up his households and gallopers and were to China.
Then the message of the sympathy temple. He would not give up the so-called pay send word to China.
Jama'a Deong wouldn't give up. He sent word to China again and then later and took wouldn't give up their households and got a person were to China.
He finally received all households and ruled over them.
And what I think is is coming out here, hopefully, is that there's a rise of legality.
It means that the moral authority has to be acknowledged. And all these new measurements,
especially edicts which are from the Mongolian side called Jessica in the of Defence I Codesa become more and more important.
However, the processes of how these were interpreted and adopted within central Tibet is a
whole different story that I hope to shed more light on in my continuing research.
And since we're a bit short on time and just give you a brief conclusion,
so I would say that the Tibetan Empire, Tim, are precepts for military and social order.
They include land rights, taxation, legal text, including sanctions.
We have a single ruler or emperor. And the fragmentation has noticed, according to the sources.
That means there's no single ruler, we don't have unitary measures or regulations,
etc. We have local but Short-Lived advances in Tibet and the possibility again in the 13th century we have time again.
This time it's Horten. It's the Mongol. Tim, we we have a military superstructure.
We have edicts and documents for land rights,
taxation measurements and other legalistic measures such as the confirmation of offers or tax exemptions.
And we have a single Mongolian emperor. OK.