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Does a dog see a tree? That's an interesting question, isn't it?

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Because there's no doubt that, by the way, just speaking personally,

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I have no doubt that the Stasi trace and even that they leave a record of their perception behind them very well.

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But to see a trade, that's quite difficult. See, but three and then given this open chicken, I'll just say something else,

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which is to subsume a particular under general category that role, particular trees come in a great variety of sizes, shapes, colours.

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And so in order to see a tree, as in seeing a tree, it seems that what is needed in addition to some capacity for sensation,

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also capacity for subsuming sensed objects under categories in such a way as to have a concept.

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And during the course of this lecture,

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I want to emphasise how the self emphasises the need for the perceived object to be incorporated into a conceptual framework option,

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which there is no understanding of what the object is.

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It really isn't an experience either.

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That's going to be an important distinction between a perception, no question, and the goal that the dogs and lots of other creatures perceive trees.

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And the experience of seeing true conscious going to argue about a necessary ingredient and

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experience is just this sort of assumption of persons under general categories falling,

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forming a task. Now this is one of many problems that we can't recognise empiricism, at least at its simplest.

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We'll always have trouble. Hence, if you take the position that all that is required to form concepts is to be a

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passive observer of events taking place in the external world and put on hold.

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How there is an external world together with an external world.

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Again, if you take the position that all that's required to form complex ideas is to parlay simple ideas,

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and all it takes to get simple ideas is to associate the number of sensations you take that that lockean refers to as lots of change of physiology,

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the process. And it's not entirely clear that a creature would live long enough to be able to put it under the same category.

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Gigantic trees and a redwood forest and little saplings for six inches off the ground.

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Or that any child would understand, ever come to understand what means.

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And most of us are cats more generally,

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that any set particulars can enter into a conceptual framework such that one actually understand what one is looking at.

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And one is not merely looking at. More than this is required.

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And in first lecture, I talked about this shower of stimulation, this incessant barrage of physical events impinging on a sense of more,

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out of which we have to create some orderly world, some love for the world, which we create in constant nature.

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And so. Imagine everyone in the room had a different world.

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But if somebody could put all of the words on all the cards together, you would have the same, let's say, a menu with the so.

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How do these how do these words get put together? How do we put together this this storm of sensations in such a way as to make this?

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After all, the manifold of stimulus constitutive of this is diverse.

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It's changing. It changes as I change its direction and its orientation, it changes as you look sideways.

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It's constantly change and it has many, many different properties.

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Somehow each have to be pulled together in the right way, just as the notes would have to be pulled together in the right way.

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Carte blanche to argue that there's nothing in empiricism that tells us how this happens, you see.

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So we're getting into the project now where he's actually going to attempt to explain the ways that he is satisfied.

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Empiricism cannot explain,

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which is to say the ordered nature of experience and our capacity to recognise things and place them in a conceptual framework that surprise,

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surprise is object. It promises, promises.

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So the critique is divided into this quite uneven division,

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into a very long section which he titles the transcendental doctrine elements of the

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relatively short but quite decisive section on the transcendental doctrine of method,

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which we will get to in like lectures. It's under that heading that we meet up with a parallel presence of pure reason all of the place.

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The reason gets in trouble when it tries to range the on the ambit of its proper mission and its powers.

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Well, what elements just can't hold on? He refers to the transcendental doctrine of all of the elements.

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The elements are the elements of cognition, one might say.

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The elements that mind us such brings to bear on reality.

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And this is further divided into three sections.

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The transcendental aesthetic by which Hart attempts to establish the conditions necessary for sensibility is itself the operating conditions,

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absent which experience itself be impossible,

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which is to say for there to be a visual experience,

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something other than a retina with receptor cells and photo pigments and a little decline

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of retinal ganglion cell tail moving an optic nerve something or the nervousness itself.

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Something must be in place for any of that, finally, to amount to a perception.

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And what is it a priori that must be in place?

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And then the transcendental analytic which establishes the all and necessary and universal conditions for there to be understanding itself,

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and then reflections of the rules that govern the deployment of our rational resources in such a way.

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As to render the outcome objective and not subjective, necessary and universal and not relative defeat and induce scepticism.

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Capital choke by simple would think.

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Now. How is counting on the term transcendental to be understood first with calm?

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It is something of a neologism and he's using it quite deliberately to distinguish what he has in mind from the transcendent.

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The transcendent refers to that which transcends experience.

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It's beyond the ambit of our perceptual resources.

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It's what traditional rationalism says is available to us as non sensory motor familiar concepts.

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That's all limits. We don't do that because we can't forget looking for the transcendent as an element of knowledge.

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The transcendent can be reached by faith or belief, by imagination, by hope, by coin flipping, delightful but not as an element of knowledge.

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Because for there to be knowledge, there must be a sensory basis, there must be an experiential basis on which any knowledge is based.

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So establish something that transcends the realm of experience.

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And you have established that whatever it is you achieve, it is not knowledge.

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So he wants to make a distinction now between this realm of the transcendent,

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which is off limits to a large degree, and what he refers to as transcendental conditions.

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Oh, it's a joke. a708b 736.

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Where he tells us what he has in mind for the doctrine of the methods which we will get to.

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And he says it's the determination of all the formal conditions of a complete system.

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Pure reason. So. So he is going to develop a I hate the word a methodology.

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He's going to develop a mode of argument and analysis that establishes one reason goes beyond it's legitimate.

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It's legitimate grounds. It's legitimate terrain.

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So with respect to the transcendental, he's helpful again in giving us a definition.

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I am totally transcendental. This is a 11 B 25,

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my entire transcendental all knowledge which is occupied not so much with objects as with

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the mode of knowledge of objects in so far as this mode of knowledge is to being possible.

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Offering or transcendental refers to the enabling conditions, the conditions that render something impossible.

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So a transcendental analysis is is an analysis of some achievement to pass on the achievement as established.

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We see traits and then the question is what must be in place offering all and necessary for us to have the concept of tree,

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for us to be able to subsume a particular tree under that general concept.

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That would be a transcendental analysis, and the conditions necessary for that would be transcendent conditions.

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So the term refers to the conditions or powers that render something impossible, the arbitrary hoary conditions that are enabled.

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They don't come about as a result of experience, but are understood to be necessary for them to be experienced by people from last week.

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That very restless concern in particular.

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When we go today to the second analogy, that's full time, but off to the few months, a venue table in trouble.

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And then if he wants balls moving, that is to say, if he wants events separated in time and understood to be somewhere out of there,

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he's got to reconcile those claims to the fact that there are no essential elements for out of that and there is no sense organ for the last time.

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So where does this spatial temporal domain come from?

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And it's going to be commerce argument and the transcendental aesthetic that it comes from us that in fact,

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our very mode of engaging the external world is spatial, temporal, and that's what a transcendental aesthetic is.

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It's about the necessary conditions for there to be involved there.

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Now. Why was this being the case?

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You know what you're tempted to do?

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You're tempted to take the position of the ordinary person and maybe in a huff with characteristic youthful impatience.

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One of those old Greek saying rhetoric. Young men have strong passions, which they tend to gratify indiscriminately.

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They love too much and hate too much. And then little things do things to excess.

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Well, in that useful impetuosity, you might be inclined to say it out there for goodness sake,

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and use some sort of an ad to dismiss the metaphysical question of how anything comes to be out there.

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Well into the Cartesian realm from.

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Suppose you want to accept the proposition that the only way you have direct

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access to all your own experience is the contents of your own consciousness.

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How on earth could you ever reach the conclusion?

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From events to which you have direct access now and consciousness that there's something out there bringing those events about.

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That is what would be the sensory cue by which you understood that some things with which you are conscious are out there and other things aren't.

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Here's the edge of the county and that's just the place. You couldn't do it.

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This is why he tells us at the outset that one of the embarrassments of metaphysics

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is that philosophy still kind of staggers the reality of an external world.

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Do you see, if you accept as an argument, an empiricist thesis, according to which all of your knowledge is mediated by sensory perceptual resources,

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so that the only way to which you have access are the contents of your own mind,

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then how could you ever have a warrant concluded that in addition to the contents of your own mind, there's an external world bringing.

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Hello. Solipsism. And there are various counters to a sort of calmness.

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Quite a patience. The impatient, common sense alternative that says, Oh, for goodness sake, we just not get off with it.

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Of. The one that comes out does get off.

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So so against the empiricist concrete Jensen theory that without our understanding of the external world constructed out of elementary sensations

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and that somehow time and space go can get guess what imported into our consciousness by way of these external events can be the case.

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This just isn't the case. Of.

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So. So we have to break a spatial temporal framework.

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We carry a spatial temporal framework operating as the in-place conditions of sensibility.

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We have a capacity, he says, which most fundamentally can be called the capacity receptivity.

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We've got an apparatus that at least is capable of being stimulated that isn't going to go too far.

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Somehow that pattern of stimulation has to become confused.

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It has to be packaged. And the packaging is special to.

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Not by way of experience, but the necessary precondition for experience, therefore not imperative, therefore pure.

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The pure intuitions of time and space of pure intuitions.

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Why on earth we chose to translate.

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On intuition to the eternal frustration.

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Students first encounter a conference. German.

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Well, let me not become a philologist.

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If you're a native German speaker and you're talking to another native German speaker about about some cosmic issue,

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you want to know that person's world view. You see how they considered.

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You might say on the fourth cup of coffee in a smoke filled room.

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After starting about. What is work with people that are.

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Our show just to show. Unsure of intuitions, but loading nothing understand cultural intuition as a mode of apprehension.

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A mode of. A vote of B holding.

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The external world. Just. And the older term I'm shallow on the curve is to be old.

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When I ivy those up on a nice dog face in German it will be, I'm sure no one would say.

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And when I intuit the lights start to face huge clouds and symbols of my romance.

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You imagine, I think, of saying and whether I can turn on the lights.

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Of course, it's still too much for us.

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So. So the pure intuitions of time and space.

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Become the non empirical, necessary universal framework that goes with everything holding half of the sensible world.

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Every every inch of something out there.

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And in fact, space. Is that pure intuition.

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That is the necessary condition for. Our sense.

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It is in virtue of it that I can distinguish I can distinguish myself from the objects in the external world.

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There can be an order of our relationship or an eye edge relationship in virtual or pure Jewish space.

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And it is the pure intuition of time that is the framework for innocence.

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My thoughts succeed each other.

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That is to say, they are ordered in time. My feelings are ordered in time.

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That's something I can now project on in the external world, thereby paying off succession.

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You say. So now she owns billiard balls and move in sequence.

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First one then. They are successful in experience, in virtue of the fact that the pure intuition on temporally organises my inner states.

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Of course, much more than this is required if there's to be a bona fide election.

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Can't identify as two fundamental powers from which knowledge itself arises.

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I could count a 50 being 74.

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The first is the capacity of receiving representations.

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The second is the power of no object through these representations.

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So again, this distinction between a capacity of receptivity and a quite different capacity for giving, we received this knowledge.

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As I say, experience is not merely they are sensation knowledge.

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It arises from an experience of a pure conception of the understanding of properly nourished, you see.

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That is to say that the experience, the experience has had to be subsumed properly under the under the Rice Award categories.

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This second power is the one constant spontaneity.

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The power of spontaneity. It is the freedom with which this power operates that permits conceiving of that which is even impossible,

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or extending concepts beyond the range of possible experience.

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For example, his example at age 96.

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The Concept of God. Carl summarises the process this way.

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This is a worthy one. What is clear can be quite clear.

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This is at age 97.

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If each representation were completely foreign to every other, standing apart and in isolation, that's so shallow that's not coherently related.

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If each representation were completely foreign to every other, standing apart and in isolation, no such thing as knowledge.

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Whatever was for knowledge is essentially a holes in which representation stemmed, compared and connected.

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Receptivity can make knowledge possible only when combined with spontaneity.

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So these things have to be put together in the right way.

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Alright now. Shazaam if you get this.

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What is the source of the spontaneity? If you don't hear the echo, that squeak.

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The News of the Daily Scotsman attacks.

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The source of Halley's Comet is mother.

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Which. Although this if that isn't a principle of common sense, I don't know what his mother would wish.

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This is the most intractable, the most bizarre, contained treatise metaphysics in the entire philosophical canon.

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And on this key and a necessary power by which representations are pulled together in just the right way.

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The power of spontaneity from the source of it is one which quotes.

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Yes. Well, yes.

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Where else? Not from experience.

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Do you know how long it would take? I was kidding with you last week.

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It's kind of the radical empiricist who believes the series of positive integers was discovered one at a time.

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Suppose you use you try to construct a coherent, ordered, natural world with no resource other than repeated exposure to things,

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repeated exposure to things, and the formation of certain associative bombs.

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Oh, please. First of all, how would you associate?

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Your first encounter with this? If your second encounter is this.

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Or this. Well, this every one of these things would be another disconnected.

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And I shall give you a neurological that you won't live for Oak Cliff or.

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Maybe 97 to say. It's a glass set of glass.

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It's a question that I say to you as a private.

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What? What's. The account develops a defence of the intuitive,

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a priority of time and space by way of what he refers to as a metaphysical exposition and a transcendental exposition.

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You might remember from the first week that Khan's understanding of metaphysics is that it's the arena in which competing theories have it.

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It's the incessant argument. It's the yes part.

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It's the sickness, it's life and sometimes unruly.

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And it and that's why you end up with indifferent ism on the part of the scientific community.

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Scepticism on the part of the philosophical community. Because these metaphysical disputes never seem to come to an end.

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So the prize competition, etc., etc. Obama's going to engage in a metaphysical exposition, as I've done so far,

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to show that there really aren't and there aren't experiential sources for time and space.

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But the Empiricist project just won't do. So that's a metaphysical exposition.

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A metaphysical exposition as to the fact that you cannot get here from there.

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The Transcendental Exposition,

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as in transcendental now and a constructive policy document showing the necessary and universal conditions such that you will get from here to there.

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So you do get succession, you do get access, you do get a valid and objective representation of the external world, etc.

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The difference between metaphysical exposition transcendental.

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Now what about 5 minutes of the Russian tradition?

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After all, the debasement was the a showstopper, actually, for the laughing.

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The early decades of the 18th century was the new from violence controversy, which shows up in the clock violence correspondence.

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And central to that whole issue was space.

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As I noted in the first lecture, in the second lecture,

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briefly with Newton's theory require absolute space as what as that cosmic container which are of material objects are located.

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And it's really there there really is cosmic container into which everything really has been

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poured and like this position by way of the law of sufficient reason that the idea of space

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as an empty thing into which you like for other things requires that space be that space

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as another space as empty somehow comes about as a result of a reason for having nothing.

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And that's contradictory. So that debate is going back and forth and can't what's going to take he's he's going to take

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sides on the science thing because he is is is going to be Newtonian in his natural science.

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But he does understand that space is a problem and that you cannot get it by having Newton, simply put it.

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Well, he does have to make clear is that no device within the rationalist tradition can deduce answers to the questions about the source of space.

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And he does this in a number of ways. But one of the very is has to do with tile what today we call chiral objects.

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One is a kind of. Yes, I have.

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So. Yes, yes, that's right. Look, if you look at your right hand in a mirror, remember now it's a mirror image.

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All of the internal relations that constitute this, that are fully preserved in the mirror image.

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But you cannot put a left glove on your right hand.

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There's no contortion of a left handed glove that will map them correctly after your right hand.

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These are called Cairo objects. That's good evidence.

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But the concept of innocence. Suppose you thought you had some means of contacting life in another galaxy.

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Let's say intelligent life, which there is all sorts of consciousness doesn't.

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And here's the question, which sent you send them this message.

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How do you develop something to communicate with? We here in a place called Earth.

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Have hearts. There are slightly displaced to the left.

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Are your thoughts just place to the left. You realise they have no.

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No way of answering that question. How do you get left to write?

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Though on the conscious scale since. The mode of apprehension is itself spatial.

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It is in virtual the fact that our experiences are spatially ordered.

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And that gives us the means by which to, let's say, establish that if my palm is up and I'm facing, you know,

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if my thumb is facing East, etc., because I've already got the necessary spatial structure and built it.

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But you realise in a universe that contained only one hand and let's say some intelligent beings,

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there's no way an intelligent being could determine whether that path is left or right.

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The last time I stood that way. I wish we had more time. Let us talk that way.

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Until I think it was 1958, thanks to Dr. Wu when she, in the process of winning the Nobel Prize, some elaborate experiments in physics.

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Establishing that God. Those are some beautiful enjoying theology shows.

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God is weakly left. As regards the asymmetry of the cosmos.

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1958 was the year I wrote my bachelor's degree life lifelong lieutenant.

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Doing battle with a right hand world. I discovered that the government is at least legally left.

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Yes. Sorry, I said yes.

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So the car was among the first to employ this concept of.

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Incongruity ports control to do so in furtherance of the proposition, but actually pure tuition space.

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We couldn't even make sense of things like that.

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The point being, no rational deductive procedure would tell any fellows if all you gave a likeness was this hand.

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And the log mentioned was required by way of some sort of rational analysis, principle of sufficient reason, law of contradiction,

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to know that you can fill the left hand load on this stand, or that the mirror image of this head nonetheless constitutes an incongruity of some sort.

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There isn't anything within the ambit of reason's powers that would get you to do, you see.

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So the empiricist cannot come forward at all. And the rationalist by very well, just.

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Go running down the street to Edvard Munch's Scream of.

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The Centennial Exposition is designed to show not only that space is pure intuition, but that it must.

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And for his principal example, he chooses geometry, which he takes to be, as he says, the forte,

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a science which determines the properties of space synthetic and yet offering an aura.

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He has this in his introduction. He has this praised fellows.

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He said so whoever it was. But tradition gives us theories.

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As of the first we know about who I hope constructed the isosceles trial of Take them separately.

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You don't honestly think Protagoras ran around measuring right out of trials and came to the happy conclusion that

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there was a formula that you might use that turned out to be a version of a square plus piece where he sees it.

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Even if you were lucky enough, and with the first right out of the triangle, but it be a three, four or five right out of the trial.

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The sheer back of of doing it. Four triangles that are.

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What would be the artists responses?

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The geometry we have is something mathematicians construct families makes us.

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He develops, geologist will develop the actions of theories that provide a science of geology,

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which then in fact can be passed on to the objective world.

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The way they do this is by having the capacity for spatial representations.

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It's not something about the external world that they go out and discover is Euclidean.

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It's that their own spatial mode of representation is itself a double necessity.

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Euclidean. And that's what they bring to bear in the construction of the science of geometry.

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And that's what turns out to be of a happy day.

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Something that aligns up with the objective world.

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With the world as understood by science.

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So these are these are arguments adduced in support of the not only the fact of the pure intuitions of time and space,

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but their necessity and in fact, their ability to match up with the objective world.

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It's not an accident that they match up with an objective world,

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because our engagement of the objective world becomes possible by virtue of these very resources.

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It's what we bring to the situation.

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So no surprise when we recover, when we recover our own aesthetic and and cognitive resources and our knowledge and our knowledge base.

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Now, finally, there are the three analogies of experience that central to Cowen's critique of traditional empiricism.

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He says that 8180 B to 23 an analogy of experience will therefore be only a rule in accordance

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with which unity of experience is to arise from perceptions and not as perception.

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So these are going to be rules.

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These are rules that determine how perceptual outcomes actually rise to the level of experience in a manner that is not that is not subjective,

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not relevant, but necessitated by the third, by the very nature of the rules themselves.

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I don't want to take too much time on this. I think Couch chooses the terminology.

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Perhaps after the loss, you might want to consult on this essay for chapter 16, Section 12,

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where law says this concerning the manner of operation in most parts of the works of nature,

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where even though we see the sensible effects, yet their causes are unknown and we perceive not the ways and manner of how they are proceed.

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Protest analogy in these matters is the only hope we have, and it is from these analogies alone that we draw all five rounds of probability.

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So, for example, the Newtonian world at the level of observation becomes explicable by way of something called a gravitational force.

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That itself is not observed, but that idea of a force as something that pushes and pulls and its analogised to things that we do know about,

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and as a way of establishing causal things where we cannot stay the course itself.

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My dream, though, never claimed fully claims once and then corrected himself that gravity was the cause of things.

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He said the gravitation laws are the rules by which the cause operates.

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We do not have access to the cause. Why? Anything released goes down something so sweet.

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We cannot explain that it goes down. We know what concepts of the the analogy is this way.

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The first analogy is that in all change of appearances, substance is permanent.

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Its quantum in nature is neither increased nor diminished.

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Now you understand that absent that, there would be no means by which to establish that as something is undergoing alteration.

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All we would conclude is that it disappeared, replaced by a different thing.

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So the first analogy of experience is that we experienced.

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Certain entities are substances in that we recognise alterations in them as alterations in something that is itself permanent versus another change.

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It's an another metamorphosis. The second technology,

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which is a key part of the ads which show everything that happens that is begins to be presupposed as something upon which it follows.

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According to or as expressed in the second edition, quote, All interactions take place in accordance with the law of connection of cause and effect.

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Again, of. What's your theory about causality?

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What's his account of the concept of causality? Constant conjunction.

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When whenever two events are constantly conjoined and experience,

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it is in virtue of a habit of the mind that one comes to be regarded as the cost of the others constant which.

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Rita Field. Reid says this is a quote from Reid.

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No to events that is constantly conjoined to human experience as a day i.

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And he had known that a couple of years ago on stage was the cause of tonight for night, the cause of death.

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Put another way, one doesn't have to keep shooting to act before reaching the conclusion that you indeed,

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of course, of this time, generally one shot will do it.

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It just turns out that there is a fundamental.

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What did you learn in school? You learned in school that correlation does not imply causality.

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So constant conjunction simply misses the essential feature of all causal attributions.

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Not that A and B have them together, but that give them a you must get B.

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Now that necessary relation is not something the cop wants to argue is in some way empirically observable.

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It is in the nature of experience that that rule guides our perception of temporally associated events.

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You see, it's a feature because if you didn't have that, there really would be no grounds on which to establish.

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So, of course, the third analogy is the, quote,

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All substances in so far as they can be perceived to coexist in space are the thoroughgoing Russian prostate cancer proof of this stance?

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I can go first at the moon and then the earth,

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or conversely first on the earth and the moon's perceptions and most of all perceptions that must follow each other separately.

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It's on this basis that they're said to be coexisted. Such coexistence is the existence of the manifold, but one on the same time.

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Now, unless you have that as an entree or a mode of experience,

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there'd be no way of distinguishing between sequences that are causal and sequences that are merely coexisted.

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I'd be saying something like, Well, now I look out the window now.

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Now I'm going to look at you. And I'm looking out the window now and got a quick look at you.

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And I've reached the conclusion that my looking out the window calls as view,

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unless they are more than half recording means by which to establish coexistence all round against cost losses of relationships.

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But again, as I said before, you establish the conditions necessary for X to be the case.

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Already having grounds is that X is the case what's necessary for it to be?

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I want to wrap this up with a remark that can't make you pull it off.

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This is a pro gunman. 259.

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Concretise this entire project to take us to the state of the fields.

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Problem for shelf says can't vote.

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The question is not whether the concept of cause was right, useful and even indispensable for a knowledgeable nation.

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For this has never done. But whether that concept could be solved by Reeves offering more evidence,

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and consequently whether it possessed an inner truth independent of all experience.

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Now. I think they are serious human scholars that might contest the claim that HUME actually was not sceptical about the causes of little its worth.

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My view was that he was not at all sceptical about the causes and nor was he trying to provide an account of causality.

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I believe he quite clearly was attempting to account for the concept of sanity

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and he accounts for that concept by way of a kind of mental associative shape.

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Can't say what [INAUDIBLE] throw his hands up. Also, the inability of pure rationalists to establish cosmic laws.

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Well, the second analogy is a natural question.

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The human experience is possible only through the representation of the necessary connection,

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the sections absent the necessary connection among ourselves.

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Experience is simply not pushed. Thus, to the extent that empiricism would restrict the knowledge to experience,

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it can succeed only by accepting the very ground of that experience for self, which is the ground it can't provide.

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And the second analogy.