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I. I'm now going to go on to Hume's faculty psychology.

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Now, in the early parts of the treaties especially, you will find HUME referring to faculties a lot of the time,

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and this can be very confusing for a number of reasons. First of all, he tends to use different words for the same faculty.

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So he will talk about reason, the understanding.

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Are they the same or different? The imagination, the fancy again?

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Are they the same or different?

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This kind of thing can be very confusing when you come to read HUME The first time can actually be confusing, even if you're rather familiar with you.

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What I want to do is to talk through what I've discovered about his faculty psychology.

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This is based on a pretty systematic investigation of his use of faculty terms throughout the treaties.

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And my hope is that by presenting to you the results of that investigation,

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you will be better able to read the early parts of the treaties and understand what's going on.

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So let's look at some of those early passages and see the distinctions that human draws.

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Well, a treatise one one, two, that's book one, part one, section two.

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So very early on, he distinguishes between impressions of sensation and impressions of reflection.

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So we have there a basic distinction between sensation and reflection.

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In the next section, he distinguishes between ideas of the memory.

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And imagination. Now, you might think that this is not going to be tremendously important.

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I mean, ideas of memory. Well, that means their ideas that we are obviously remembering in a fixed order, ideas of the imagination.

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We have more freedom. We can mix and match those. But is this of any great significance for understanding humans philosophy?

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Well, we see some of the significance in the big famous arguments for which HUME is best known.

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So the first quotation there is from the famous section on induction where HUME is

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setting up his discussion of induction and giving the agenda for what follows.

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The next question is whether experience produces the idea by means of the understanding or imagination,

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whether we are determined by reason to make the transition or by association of perceptions.

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So here what he's saying is when we make an inductive inference, an inference from past a future,

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for example, we've seen one billiard ball hit another billiard ball and the second one move.

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We've seen that again and again and again. We see a billiard ball moving towards another and we expect the second one to move.

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So from the impression of the usual cause, we get a lively idea of the usual effect.

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We're expecting that effect to come about. And here humans posing the question.

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Which faculty is it that leads us to do that? Is it the understanding or the imagination?

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Is it the reason or is it association of perceptions?

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Now straight away that shed some light on Hume's notion of these faculties.

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He seems to be equating the understanding with reason.

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He seems to be treating the imagination as a faculty.

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That has to do with the Association of Ideas. That is correct.

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That is giving an appropriate impression of Hume's use here.

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But you can see that he's he's the way in which he poses.

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This question suggests that this is going to be absolutely central to understanding his conclusion.

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The second quotation there is from Hume's discussion of the external world of scepticism with regard to the senses.

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So here, another very famous one of Hume's arguments What is it that leads us to believe in the continued and distinct existence of body?

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Why do we believe that there are physical things outside us that continue to exist, even when we're not perceiving them?

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And again, he's setting the agenda. So this is right at the beginning of the session.

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The subject then of our present inquiry is concerning the causes which induce us to believe in the existence of body.

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We shall consider whether it be the senses, reason or the imagination that produces the opinion of a continued or of a distinct existence.

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And after having set the agenda in that way, his discussion continues.

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Accordingly, he looks to see whether it's the senses that produce this opinion.

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No, it's not them. Looks at reason. No, it's not reason.

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Well, then it must be the imagination. And here's how the imagination does it.

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So again, we get a major discussion of Hume's philosophy being couched in terms of which faculty is responsible for some crucial mental operation.

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Again with morality, it's a bit less explicit here, but the same thing is essentially going on.

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So this is right from the beginning of book three of the treatise, the first section of Book three, where he's discussing the origin of morality.

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We need only consider whether it be possible from reason alone to distinguish between moral good and evil,

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or whether the must concur some other principles to enable us to make that distinction.

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And here at the beginning of the moral inquiry, the inquiry concerning the principles of Morals, which was published in 1751.

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There's been a controversy started of late concerning the general foundation of morals, whether they be derived from reason or from sentiment.

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Okay.

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So we've seen that three of the most famous positions for which HUME is known concerning induction, concerning the external world, concerning morals.

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And all of them are phrased in terms of which faculty is responsible for a particular operation.

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Now you might expect that it would be fairly straightforward,

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given the importance that HUME accords to these faculties, to get clear on what he means by them all.

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Actually, it's not very straightforward at all. In particular, the relation between reason and the imagination is quite tricky to untangle,

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and we'll be talking about that in a lecture or two when we come to induction.

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What I'm going to do now is as a preliminary, give you an outline of the theory of faculties, which seems to be implicit in the treaties.

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And I'm going to try to avoid saying things that are too controversial and just go by the faculties he refers to and what he says about them.

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So here is an enumeration of the faculties that HUME seems to endorse.

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Well, first of all, we've got the external senses.

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So the senses, the familiar five senses that their function seems to be to be to impress present impressions to the mind.

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So as we've seen, ideas are copied from impressions.

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What the external senses do is present visual or tactile or whatever impressions to the mind.

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And we get ideas that copy them. Reflection we've seen is an internal sense.

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And as I've mentioned before, HUME seems to put together two different kinds of reflection that perhaps he ought to have distinguished.

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And one is feeling getting, for example, a feeling of heat or anger whereby I derive ideas of those sorts of things.

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And another one is being aware, monitoring what's going on in my mind.

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He puts those together under the heading of reflection.

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Most of the time, when he talks about impressions of reflection, he means passions, desires, that sort of thing.

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And we've seen that he talks about the memory. And the function of the memory is to replay our ideas, and it does so vivacious.

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So when HUME distinguishes between the memory and the imagination, there are two big distinctions.

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One of them, as we've seen, is that the memory replays our ideas in the same order as the original.

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So when we're remembering things, ideas come back to our mind in a similar order as the impressions came.

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So when we see an event happening, A followed by B followed by C, our memory will replay those ideas in the same order.

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And it will do so vivacious. We are going to come across fulsome vivacity quite a lot in what follows.

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And one of the things that Hugh wants to say is that when we get ideas of the memory, when we feel, oh, that's something that happened.

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That's a more vivacious, a stronger idea than if we just imagine the same thing happening.

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So that brings us to the imagination. And HUME uses the word fancy indistinguishable.

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So just for elegant variation, sometimes he will talk about the imagination.

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Sometimes he will talk about the fancy. Quite often, he will simply alternate between the two within the same sentence.

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So be aware of that when you come across the word the fancy.

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That really is just another word for the imagination. The imagination, unlike the memory, has freedom to change around our ideas.

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You know, we can think of a unicorn by taking the idea of a horn and the idea of a horse,

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even though we've never had the impression of those together. Our imagination has the freedom to transpose them.

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But those ideas as a result are less vivacious.

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They don't strike us with the force of belief.

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When I imagine a unicorn that that isn't as though I remember having seen one.

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It's quite different. Oh, sorry.

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Let's go back. So that brings us to reason which HUME also calls the understanding, and I will give some textual support for that in a moment.

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Now, understanding what Hue means by reason is very difficult and very controversial.

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What I'm going to suggest for the moment is we take it to be something like the overall cognitive faculty,

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that is the faculty by which we discover and judge truth and falsehood.

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And that goes along with seeing HUME using the word, the understanding.

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As equivalent. So when he talks about when he gives a title to one of the treaties of the understanding.

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He's talking there about a general cognitive faculty which embraces all the various methods we have of discovering what is the case.

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At least that's what it seems to be. But you can see that that causes a bit of a problem.

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Because when HUME asks whether a particular opinion is derived from reason or not, he seems to be using reason in a rather narrower way.

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So there's a bit of a problem in understanding exactly what the scope of reason is here.

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Is he using the word ambiguously? Most HUME scholars have thought that he is.

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But for the moment, at any rate, let's take reason in that broad sense of meaning, the understanding our overall cognitive faculty.

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And contrast that with the will the cognitive faculty which forms intentions in response to desires and passions.

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So we have this traditional distinction between reason or the understanding and the will.

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And one of those is used to discover things about the world.

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The other forms, intentions and acts upon them.

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Here are some quotations which could be used to back up this general thought of reason as being the cognitive faculty we get.

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Reason is the discovery of truth or falsehood. Now that occurs in his discussion of morality.

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So what HUME is wanting to argue here is that morality is not a matter of discovery of truth and falsehood.

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What he's going to say in brief is that moral judgements motivate us.

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They have a cognitive element. They lead us to act, whereas mere discovery of fact can't do that.

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Therefore, reason cannot be responsible for moral distinctions.

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And you can see that it fits perfectly into that sort of argument.

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To start off by saying reason is the discovery of truth of falsehood.

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That faculty by which we discern truth and falsehood.

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The understanding that a footnote that was in the first two editions of Hume's inquiry, 1748 and 1750.

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It was removed later, but not, I think, because of any change of view.

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Uh, I think he simply removed a reference to some other philosophers that had been there.

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The dissertation on the passions. So that's a few years later.

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Reason in a strict sense as meaning the judgement of truth and falsehood.

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So again, we've got something very similar to what we saw in book three of the treaties, and there are lots of other passages that could be mentioned.

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So we've got quite a few from the treaties there. EM Is the moral inquiry and map is the appendix here the first appendix to the moral inquiry?

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What about reason and understanding? And bear in mind, this is a controversial claim.

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Don Garrett, David Owen, for example, would want to deny this.

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But I think there's very strong evidence that humans using reason and the understanding as completely equivalent.

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Take, for example, this passage again from the discussion of induction.

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When the mind makes an inductive inference, it is not determined by reason,

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but by certain principles which associate together the ideas of these objects and unite them in the imagination.

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Had ideas no more union in the fancy than object seemed to have to the understanding we wouldn't be able to make those inferences.

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That seems absolutely clear there that the term the ANC is being used as mere elegant variation for the imagination.

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And there's plenty of other passages where he does this.

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And I think it's equally clear that he's using the understanding as elegant variation for reason.

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They seem to be referring to one and the same thing. And again, there's a host of other passages where he does this.

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I think a particularly striking one is the footnote that you find in book two of the treatise 2 to 7 six.

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Um hum. Actually gave instructions for this footnote to be removed, but it remains by mistake in the treatise.

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He wanted to replace it with a longer footnote, which he reworded, and that's entreaties.

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139 19. So that's one of the treaties.

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So we have a footnote being reworded. And in the first one he said, by the understanding, I understand, blah, blah, blah.

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And he got he was explaining what he meant by the understanding. Now that's obviously a bit inelegant by the understanding.

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I understand he reworded it by reason.

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I understand. Very strong evidence that for whom the two terms are being used completely, equivalently.

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Now here are various passages which I shan't go through in detail.

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I've simply listed them. These are all passages where HUME explicitly talks about faculties,

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so he uses the word faculty or faculties and distinguishes the various faculties from each other,

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either explicitly or implicitly, but nevertheless clearly.

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And that, I think serves to support the itemisation that I given of the various faculties that HUME recognises.

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He never distinguishes between reason and the understanding. He never distinguishes between reason or the understanding and the judgement.

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I think that significant. Also,

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there's an important footnote in treaties 1375 where HUME actually says it's

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a mistake to distinguish between the different parts of the understanding.

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He wants to say that conception and judgement and reason all ultimately reduce to the same thing.

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So it would seem rather strange if he were drawing fine distinctions within the understanding between judgement and reason and so forth.

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Again, there is potential controversy here.

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I'm simply giving you the results of what I tried to make a fairly objective investigation into the language that HUME uses in the treatise.

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Now. Let's take a look at that in the context, the historical context set by two predecessors.

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Well, one predecessor, one contemporary, really. Now, John Locke talks about faculties, but expresses some anti realism about them.

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So he actually suggests that talking about faculties is a source of error.

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I mean, when you talk about the human understanding, it sounds like there's something in you that understands.

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And he says, no, that's not right. When we talk about the human understanding, all we mean is our capacity to understand.

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That's all the faculty of reason is not a it's not a separate thing that reasons.

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It's our reasoning capacity. And he actually suggests maybe it would be better to do away entirely with faculty words because they're so misleading.

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But he says that so much in fashion it looks like too much affectation wholly to lay them by.

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So it would be a bit pretentious. It would seem very unconventional not to use faculty language, given how common it is.

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But we do need to watch out for this era. We mustn't think of the faculties as distinct agents, and when we refer to the faculties,

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it looks like Locke is not really making a big deal about it.

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The understanding or reason, whichever your Lordship pleases to call it,

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he's not making a big deal as to whether we call a particular thing the understanding or the reason.

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Now. We'll see later that HUME also has some negative things to say about faculty language when he talks about the ancient philosophers.

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This is treatise one for three. He has dismissive things to say about faculties.

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And indeed, given Hume's background, uh, the fact that he's, as it were, he's empiricist.

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So he's not going to think that we can, as it were, look in asset selves and intrinsically discover the parts of the mind by a priori reasoning.

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Uh, he's generally metaphysically, rather modest.

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You wouldn't expect that he would be a big fan of faculties in the light of Locke's sceptical view of them.

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On the other hand, let's look at Francis Hutcheson.

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Now, Francis Hutcheson is he was probably the most famous philosopher in Scotland and the most influential at the time that HUME was writing.

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He was already a major figure.

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HUME sent the treatise to Hutchison for comments, or at least he sent book three of the treatise in draft form to Hutchison to get comments on it.

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This was in 1740. He was sent the first two volumes of the treatise, which had been published in 1739 by a friend of Hume's.

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So we have those as well. Now, it's rather intriguing that in 1742, that's two years after seeing Hume's draft of the treaties.

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Hutchison, in three different works, added comments about the faculties.

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So it's not absolutely clear which way the influence goes here.

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We've got Hutchison, an older contemporary of HUME. Maybe HUME discovered about faculty language from Hutchison.

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Maybe he took it on from the milieu in which they were both working.

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Or just possibly Hutchison's comments on the faculties in 1742 are intended to be a corrective to what he had found in HUME.

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It's possible. We just don't know. Writers on these subjects should remember the common division of the faculties of the soul.

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Now, is that saying to whom you should have remembered the common division of the faculties of the soul and take note of it?

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Well, maybe. There is reason presenting the natures and relations of things antecedent to any act of will or desire.

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And secondly, there's the will. The disposition of Seoul to pursue what is presented is good and to shun evil.

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Below. These are the ancients, and we should follow them placed to other powers dependent on the body.

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The sense is effectively and the passions and the senses answer to the understanding and the latter.

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That is the passions answer to the will. Now, if you take a look on the blue handout that I've given you.

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What you'll see at the top left is a diagram of what I call Hume's apparent faculty structure.

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And I've put in brackets draft. And that's not a draft because I'm going to be working on this further and telling you something different.

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It's because there are quite a lot of things there that are left undetermined and which are potentially controversial.

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In particular, you can see that I've put the intellectual faculty, the understanding or reason or judgement on a level with the imagination.

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No lines between them. I'm not implying any sort of hierarchy.

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If you look at the diagram below.

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That is the taxonomy of the faculties implied by what Hutchinson's Hutchinson's written up on passage there and filled out by a work,

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another work he published in 1742. And I think it's fair to say that this gives the view of the faculties, the general view of the faculties.

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Of those to whom HUME was writing. So we'll find that HUME has a rather an unconventional view of reason and the imagination.

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Sorting out the relation between those becomes very thorny and pretty essential for sorting out what he means when he's discussing,

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for example, induction. But the people he's addressing would have taken the view pretty much as Hutchison sketches it.

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So the faculties divide into you've got the cognitive realm and the cognitive realm.

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You've got reason, which, in Hutchison's words,

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perceives and judges the deliverance of the other faculties to discover the natures and relations of things.

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So that's how we discover what is the case.

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On the other hand, we've got the cognitive realm, the realm of the will, and that's what decides on action, depending on our desires and passions.

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Now notice that Hutchison puts subordinate to the reason he talks about them reporting to reason.

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For faculties, which I've put down there, is reckless in imagination, memory and senses.

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Okay. Now, three of those are familiar from human imagination, memory and the senses.

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They all seem fairly straightforward. What's this other one ratchet situation?

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Well, notice that Hutchison is drawing a distinction between the faculty of Reason,

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the overall cognitive faculty and the faculty of Rattus in Asian rat assassination is a matter of

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taking your ideas and putting them in order so that you could see the connections between them.

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So Rattus in Asian, if you like, is the faculty of argument of reasoning step by step reasoning.

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And one of the faculties that we have is to organise complex ideas in a sequence so that we can see their connections.

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And Hutchison clearly has the view of reason as something that looks down on, if you like, surveys these other cognitive faculties,

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these lesser faculties that report to reason and reason makes a judgement based on what these faculties present.

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Okay. Now, look at the diagram at the top. Right?

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Hutcheson is distinctive from most other authors in drawing a much more sophisticated structure underneath the senses.

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So where human just distinguishes between the external senses and reflection.

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You can see that Hutchison draws a distinction between the external senses and internal sense what he calls consciousness and reflexive sensation.

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And under the reflexive sensation, he places a number of different, further senses and aesthetic sense sympathy that is,

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fellow feeling for others, a sense of the fitting and the good and a sense of humour.

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So Hutchison is treating all of these as cognitive.

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And when we discuss HUME on morality, which we will do briefly,

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because we've seen that's extremely relevant to Hume's overall philosophy and his view of the faculties.

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HUME is going to dispute with Hutchison whether this discovery of moral distinctions actually belongs in the realm of reason.

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He's going to say, actually, it doesn't. It comes from a notion of taste, which is an interesting amalgam of the two halves.

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Okay. So I hope that when you read HUME referring to the various faculties,

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you'll now be able to see how the terms he's using relate to the understanding of those terms of his contemporaries.

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But you will nevertheless find some of what he says quite puzzling.

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I hope that puzzle will be alleviated in a lecture or two when we come to discuss HUME on induction.