1 00:00:11,550 --> 00:00:22,080 So let's now move on to section one for three and one for four of the treaties of the ancient philosophy and of the modern philosophy. 2 00:00:25,700 --> 00:00:34,790 Well of the ancient philosophy is essentially an attack on Aristotelian ism, also known as the peripatetic philosophy. 3 00:00:35,690 --> 00:00:49,000 And what HUME does in this section is criticise them, indeed, rather ridicule them for being overly dependent on the fictions of the imagination. 4 00:00:49,010 --> 00:00:51,560 They get carried away by imaginative fantasies. 5 00:00:51,830 --> 00:01:01,550 They are almost like children or poets in being overly influenced by natural tendencies to invent imaginative fictions. 6 00:01:03,080 --> 00:01:10,130 And here he's picking on substances, substantial forms, accidents and occult qualities. 7 00:01:11,030 --> 00:01:17,990 And these are things which Hume's audience would also have generally thought to be ridiculous. 8 00:01:18,800 --> 00:01:22,220 He's writing for an audience of modern philosophers. 9 00:01:24,050 --> 00:01:30,170 He explains the fictions as arising from the imagination in a very natural way. 10 00:01:31,490 --> 00:01:40,670 But what we ought to do is philosophers is be more critical about what the imagination naturally needs to think. 11 00:01:42,950 --> 00:01:51,920 So I'm judicious philosophers, and he's clearly referring to Locke here, Locke's chapter of our complex ideas of substances. 12 00:01:53,150 --> 00:01:59,840 Consider that our ideas of bodies are nothing but collections formed by the mind of the ideas of the several distinct, 13 00:01:59,840 --> 00:02:02,840 sensible qualities of which objects are composed. 14 00:02:03,860 --> 00:02:12,860 So Locke had said that our ideas of particular substances are made up of the collections of ideas that we have about their properties. 15 00:02:13,400 --> 00:02:24,650 So when we think of gold, for example, we think of a combination of qualities, including the colour, the texture that the mass, the weight and so on. 16 00:02:27,200 --> 00:02:34,340 And now Locke actually, in entitling his chapter of our complex ideas of substances, 17 00:02:34,940 --> 00:02:41,570 he is himself attacking the Aristotelian who had thought that we have a simple idea of substances. 18 00:02:42,320 --> 00:02:51,920 And HUME is essentially here agreeing with Locke, but he's giving an account of how that false idea of simple substances comes about. 19 00:02:53,000 --> 00:03:01,730 The smooth and uninterrupted progress of the thought readily deceives the mind and makes us ascribe an identity to the changeable succession. 20 00:03:02,030 --> 00:03:09,620 So we we've seen this from one for two. We see objects gradually changing. 21 00:03:10,070 --> 00:03:14,090 Our imagination overlooks the changes. 22 00:03:14,510 --> 00:03:27,230 And because we naturally think of something as undergoing coherent, gradual changes, we're seduced into thinking of it as a simple continuing thing. 23 00:03:31,770 --> 00:03:41,130 Now. Okay, so we see an object over time changing in small ways, but generally appearing much the same. 24 00:03:41,700 --> 00:03:51,990 And we think of it as one in the same thing that actually implies human things, that it would have to be completely unchanging to preserve identity. 25 00:03:52,530 --> 00:03:56,010 It must be literally the same over time. 26 00:03:57,990 --> 00:04:05,070 Now, obviously, when we think more carefully, we realise that things are actually undergoing changes. 27 00:04:05,610 --> 00:04:13,950 So we have a kind of inconsistency in our thinking. We tend to think of the thing is identical over time and hence absolutely the same over time. 28 00:04:14,130 --> 00:04:16,770 But we realise that externally it's changing. 29 00:04:17,610 --> 00:04:27,420 So we reconcile that contradiction by imagining that some substance underneath the sensible qualities which remains the same. 30 00:04:28,290 --> 00:04:33,090 So again, this is very much the sort of thing that he's been explaining in one for two. 31 00:04:33,780 --> 00:04:37,589 So notice that Hume's discussion in one, four, two, 32 00:04:37,590 --> 00:04:47,880 where he's talking about how we come to have the idea of body is applicable both to the ancient philosophers and the modern philosophers. 33 00:04:49,440 --> 00:04:55,920 He, both the ancient ancients whom he's discussing now, have one particular idea of substance. 34 00:04:56,280 --> 00:04:59,520 We'll see that in the next section of the modern philosophy. 35 00:04:59,850 --> 00:05:05,370 He criticises the modern philosophers such as Locke with their distinction between primary and secondary qualities. 36 00:05:06,030 --> 00:05:14,130 But both of them are subject to the kind of thing, the kind of illusions of the imagination that have been outlined in one for two. 37 00:05:16,590 --> 00:05:24,750 Okay, so the ancient philosophers are ascribing the identity of things to a single simple substance 38 00:05:24,960 --> 00:05:31,140 underlying the objects qualities a principle of union or cohesion amongst those qualities. 39 00:05:35,290 --> 00:05:39,760 But if the substance is simple, if the underlying substance is simple, 40 00:05:40,450 --> 00:05:51,070 how common is it that different instances of these of these material things have different qualities, 41 00:05:51,790 --> 00:05:54,460 for example, different colours, different shape, etc.? 42 00:05:55,150 --> 00:06:02,950 Well, the Aristotelian have to invent something called substantial form, which they bring in to explain that. 43 00:06:05,110 --> 00:06:11,649 And then the qualities which are not essential to the object are ascribed as accidental qualities. 44 00:06:11,650 --> 00:06:18,280 So you get to the notion of accidents, and HUME wants to say that all of these notions are meaningless. 45 00:06:18,580 --> 00:06:20,230 People don't know what they're talking about. 46 00:06:21,040 --> 00:06:28,900 These philosophers propose a substance supporting which they do not understand, and an accident supported of which they have as imperfect an idea. 47 00:06:29,560 --> 00:06:32,800 The whole system, therefore, is entirely incomprehensible. 48 00:06:33,730 --> 00:06:37,270 So he's extremely critical of the ancient philosophy. 49 00:06:39,780 --> 00:06:46,980 Now he goes on to attack the notions of faculty and occult equality. 50 00:06:51,260 --> 00:06:57,050 And here he is, referring back implicitly to his discussion of causation. 51 00:07:00,280 --> 00:07:04,929 So people naturally imagine that they perceive a connection between constantly conjoined objects. 52 00:07:04,930 --> 00:07:12,190 When you see A followed by B again and again, you've seen a unit really expect to be, you feel, as it were, a connection in the mind. 53 00:07:12,670 --> 00:07:16,120 Okay, that's all familiar from treaties one 314. 54 00:07:18,460 --> 00:07:26,950 When we look at the objects themselves, we find no such connection apparent in their qualities. 55 00:07:29,570 --> 00:07:38,450 Now, the just inference to draw, HUME says, is that we have no idea of power or agency separate from the mind and belonging to causes. 56 00:07:38,930 --> 00:07:42,380 That's very similar to what he's been saying at the end of one 340. 57 00:07:43,790 --> 00:07:48,400 But what the ancient philosophers do is invent the words faculty and polity. 58 00:07:48,620 --> 00:07:54,800 They need only say that any phenomenon which puzzles them arises from a faculty or occult quality. 59 00:07:56,900 --> 00:08:08,479 So a well-known example of this is the ridicule that Moliere gives of the notion of qualities in the mallard. 60 00:08:08,480 --> 00:08:15,260 Imagine at one of his plays. And there a doctor is asked, Why does opium make one sleep? 61 00:08:16,670 --> 00:08:21,740 Oh, it's because it has a soporific virtue whose nature it is to stupefied the senses. 62 00:08:22,130 --> 00:08:26,330 So you ask, why does opium make you sleep? 63 00:08:26,360 --> 00:08:31,430 Answer It's got a sleep inducing quality, not explanatory. 64 00:08:32,360 --> 00:08:35,480 And this is the kind of thing that HUME here is ridiculing again. 65 00:08:35,510 --> 00:08:37,850 His audience will be very sympathetic to this. 66 00:08:41,860 --> 00:08:48,970 But among all the instances where in the peripatetic have shown they were guided by every trivial propensity of the imagination. 67 00:08:49,480 --> 00:08:54,790 No one is more remarkable than their sympathies, antipathies and horrors of a vacuum. 68 00:08:55,750 --> 00:09:03,850 There is a very remarkable inclination in human nature to bestow on external objects the same emotions which it observes in itself. 69 00:09:04,510 --> 00:09:12,640 This inclination, it is true, is suppressed by a little reflection and only takes place in children, poets and the ancient philosophers. 70 00:09:14,050 --> 00:09:17,770 What excuse should we find to justify our philosophers in such signal? 71 00:09:17,770 --> 00:09:28,570 A weakness. So he gives an example of a child who hurts himself on a stone might hit the stone in anger. 72 00:09:29,830 --> 00:09:35,470 So the child is attributing intentions to the stone as though the stone has been naughty for hurting it. 73 00:09:36,550 --> 00:09:39,550 Now, when we grow up, we get past all that sort of thing. 74 00:09:40,000 --> 00:09:43,840 But he's saying essentially that the ancient philosophers, when they talk about sympathies, 75 00:09:43,840 --> 00:09:47,410 antipathies, horrors of a vacuum, they're doing exactly the same thing. 76 00:09:48,100 --> 00:09:51,130 And here he's referring to the basis of Aristotelian science. 77 00:09:51,310 --> 00:10:01,930 Aristotelian science attributes the tendency of stones to fall to a sort of desire, a striving to reach the centre of the universe. 78 00:10:03,430 --> 00:10:09,490 And HUME is saying, actually, this is just like the child who hits the stone. 79 00:10:10,540 --> 00:10:17,080 Now, notice the important phrase there that guided by every trivial propensity of the imagination. 80 00:10:18,070 --> 00:10:24,070 So he's attacking the ancient philosophers for being carried away by these illusions of the imagination. 81 00:10:24,580 --> 00:10:28,210 We will see that this plays an important role in what's to come. 82 00:10:32,920 --> 00:10:37,240 Because he might seem to be inconsistent here. 83 00:10:38,500 --> 00:10:41,740 Remember, think back to the discussion of induction. 84 00:10:43,240 --> 00:10:46,210 HUME asked whether induction is founded on reason, 85 00:10:46,690 --> 00:10:53,590 and he came to the conclusion that it isn't that the foundation of induction is the imagination, it's the custom. 86 00:10:54,070 --> 00:11:01,180 Our tendency after we've seen it followed by B repeatedly when we see an A to extrapolate and expect to be. 87 00:11:01,750 --> 00:11:05,080 And that's not dependent on reason. It's dependent on the imagination. 88 00:11:06,280 --> 00:11:14,200 So how is it fair of HUME to criticise the ancient philosophers for basing their philosophy on the principles of the imagination? 89 00:11:14,530 --> 00:11:23,440 He's doing exactly the same, isn't he? Well, there's a famous passage in which he addresses this. 90 00:11:24,940 --> 00:11:32,230 He distinguishes between two sort of imaginative principles, some of them respectable, some not. 91 00:11:32,560 --> 00:11:34,540 So I'm going to read out this whole passage. 92 00:11:34,540 --> 00:11:42,040 It's a particularly notable one, and it's often been thought to give a sort of key to Hume's answer to scepticism. 93 00:11:42,700 --> 00:11:52,540 We'll see that in the treatise. The answer doesn't quite work, but arguably it is retained in his later work, 94 00:11:52,540 --> 00:12:00,549 and that perhaps does in order to justify myself to explain how my philosophy is not 95 00:12:00,550 --> 00:12:04,270 subject to the objection that I've just given against the ancient philosophers, 96 00:12:05,110 --> 00:12:10,810 I must distinguish in the imagination betwixt the principles which are permanent, irresistible and universal, 97 00:12:11,470 --> 00:12:15,850 such as the customary transition from causes to effects and from effects to causes, 98 00:12:16,660 --> 00:12:22,850 and the principles which are changeable, weak and irregular, such as those I have just now taken notice of. 99 00:12:22,870 --> 00:12:27,700 That is the principles that influenced the ancient philosophers, the former. 100 00:12:28,310 --> 00:12:37,959 That's the ones that are permanent, irresistible and universal are the foundation of all our thoughts and actions so that upon their removal, 101 00:12:37,960 --> 00:12:40,660 human nature must immediately perish and go to ruin. 102 00:12:41,410 --> 00:12:48,310 The latter are neither unavoidable to mankind nor necessary, or so much as useful in the conduct of life. 103 00:12:49,030 --> 00:12:55,419 But on the contrary, are observed only to take place in weak minds and being opposite to the other principles 104 00:12:55,420 --> 00:13:00,640 of conduct and reasoning may easily be subverted by due contrast and opposition. 105 00:13:01,300 --> 00:13:06,220 For this reason, the former received by philosophy and the latter rejected. 106 00:13:08,720 --> 00:13:12,740 So he's saying that amongst the principles of the imagination, 107 00:13:12,950 --> 00:13:17,650 there are some that are respectable that we couldn't live without, that are therefore universal. 108 00:13:17,660 --> 00:13:21,920 Everybody has them like induction. So that's okay. 109 00:13:22,790 --> 00:13:27,050 We as philosophers accept those and base our theorising on those. 110 00:13:28,130 --> 00:13:34,640 But there are other ones that are changeable, weak and irregular the kind of thing that makes you assign purposes to a stone. 111 00:13:35,360 --> 00:13:48,940 Those sorts of principles are to be rejected. Now there's an interesting footnote in a earlier book, one part three of the treaties, 112 00:13:49,610 --> 00:13:55,040 a footnote that HUME actually took the trouble to have inserted into the treaties while it was in press. 113 00:13:55,970 --> 00:14:01,910 So he had the footnote put on what's called a cancel sheet to replace the original page. 114 00:14:02,480 --> 00:14:06,650 And he cut out some of the previous text in order to make room for it. 115 00:14:07,220 --> 00:14:15,860 So he obviously thought it was quite important. And this is essentially addressing exactly the same point. 116 00:14:15,870 --> 00:14:19,260 He's distinguishing between two different senses of the imagination. 117 00:14:19,920 --> 00:14:27,990 In one sense, the imagination is the faculty that controls the vivacity of our ideas, 118 00:14:29,580 --> 00:14:35,820 that of to which all the associative principals and so on belong, including custom. 119 00:14:38,900 --> 00:14:46,219 In the other sense, the imagination only concerns those witnesses and prejudices which are rejected 120 00:14:46,220 --> 00:14:49,880 under the appropriate character of being the offspring of the imagination. 121 00:14:50,300 --> 00:14:55,820 So when we criticise people for being carried away by the imagination, we mean it in this other sense. 122 00:14:56,090 --> 00:15:00,440 The sense in which imaginative principles are wins isn't prejudices. 123 00:15:01,220 --> 00:15:09,140 So distinguish between those two senses and human is quite happy to acknowledge that his philosophy is founded on the imagination. 124 00:15:09,560 --> 00:15:11,300 In the formal sense, the broader one. 125 00:15:12,920 --> 00:15:20,360 But he obviously is criticising the ancient philosophers for founding their philosophy on the winds and prejudices. 126 00:15:20,840 --> 00:15:25,380 Sense of the imagination. Okay. 127 00:15:25,410 --> 00:15:33,239 Let's now move on to of the modern philosophy that certainly is wonderful for the modern 128 00:15:33,240 --> 00:15:39,930 philosophy typified by Locke claims could be based much more solidly than the ancient philosophy, 129 00:15:39,930 --> 00:15:45,090 not on windows and prejudices, but on the solid permanence and consistent principles of the imagination. 130 00:15:45,390 --> 00:15:49,440 Now, Q is going to argue that actually it isn't nearly as solid as it might appear. 131 00:15:52,050 --> 00:15:57,420 So a key pillar of the modern philosophy is the distinction between primary and secondary qualities. 132 00:15:57,570 --> 00:16:04,440 Secondary qualities are supposed to exist only in the mind. Primary qualities are attributed to objects themselves. 133 00:16:05,730 --> 00:16:10,140 HUME suggests that the only satisfactory argument for drawing that distinction 134 00:16:10,530 --> 00:16:16,230 is to do with variations how things look differently in different contexts. 135 00:16:22,230 --> 00:16:29,080 So the argument is that if different impressions from the same sentence arise from some object. 136 00:16:29,100 --> 00:16:36,060 Suppose an object looks different in different lights or looks different when we're suffering from some disease or. 137 00:16:36,180 --> 00:16:45,719 Tastes differently depending on our situation. And we clearly cannot attribute all of the qualities that we sense to the object. 138 00:16:45,720 --> 00:16:54,780 That would seem to be a contradiction. But on the other hand, our sensory impressions are of the same kind. 139 00:16:55,470 --> 00:17:01,980 I mean, to take an example that Locke gives, suppose one of my hands has been in cold water and one of them in hot water, 140 00:17:02,340 --> 00:17:08,100 and I put my hands into a bowl of warm water and it feels warm to one and cold to the other. 141 00:17:09,120 --> 00:17:14,940 It can't be both warm and sorry. It can't be both hot and cold. 142 00:17:15,960 --> 00:17:21,000 But on the other hand, my impression of hot in my impression of cold, those feelings are of the same kind. 143 00:17:21,840 --> 00:17:25,050 So if they can't both belong to the object, it seems that neither can. 144 00:17:26,100 --> 00:17:31,590 Again, if something looks different colours from different perspectives or in different light, 145 00:17:33,090 --> 00:17:36,930 it can't have both colours because they contradict each other. 146 00:17:37,740 --> 00:17:44,340 But since both impressions are of the same kind, the natural conclusion seems to be that it doesn't have either of them. 147 00:17:45,570 --> 00:17:55,410 Now notice that this is an argument using a causal principle from like effects, we suppose, like we presumed, like causes, and that's quite important. 148 00:17:55,410 --> 00:18:03,810 We'll see that he refers back to it later. So that's the argument that he sees as providing the basis for the primary secondary quality distinction. 149 00:18:06,420 --> 00:18:13,650 If you know Locke, I think you would rather doubt that that's the main argument that Locke is depending on. 150 00:18:14,550 --> 00:18:24,720 But at any rate. HUME, following Berkeley sees the argument, as it were, from illusion or from mistaken perceptions as an important reason for it. 151 00:18:27,460 --> 00:18:32,440 And he follows on with a very Berkeley in objection when the Berkeley objected to Locke 152 00:18:33,520 --> 00:18:39,250 that you couldn't form an idea of a primary quality abstracted from the secondary quality. 153 00:18:39,580 --> 00:18:42,280 Because whenever we see a shape, we see a coloured shape. 154 00:18:43,000 --> 00:18:47,980 You can't actually form an idea, according to Berkeley, in view of a shape that isn't coloured. 155 00:18:49,390 --> 00:18:53,980 And Humes argument is essentially a refinement of that. 156 00:18:55,510 --> 00:19:00,310 He's going to argue that if all the secondary qualities exist only in the mind, not in objects, 157 00:19:01,090 --> 00:19:08,590 you can't actually form an idea of a solid, extended object independent of the mind. 158 00:19:10,840 --> 00:19:18,910 The problem is that the form an idea of an extended body, my idea of extension has to have some content. 159 00:19:19,150 --> 00:19:22,000 I have to have some idea of what it is that is extended. 160 00:19:22,960 --> 00:19:30,550 Now I can get ideas of extension from sight or touch and ultimately from atomic ideas of colour. 161 00:19:31,030 --> 00:19:40,450 Remember the minima from but one part to or simple solid ideas which I get from touch. 162 00:19:43,860 --> 00:19:47,680 But the problem is colour is excluded from any real existence. 163 00:19:47,700 --> 00:19:53,010 In other words, the modern philosophers say that colour is a secondary qualities in the mind, not in objects. 164 00:19:53,400 --> 00:19:58,230 So that won't give you an idea of an external object. 165 00:20:00,210 --> 00:20:04,770 And our idea of solidity is parasitic on our idea of an object. 166 00:20:04,950 --> 00:20:08,880 The idea of solidity is that of two objects which cannot penetrate each other. 167 00:20:09,240 --> 00:20:13,380 So unless you've got something to provide content to the notion of an object, 168 00:20:14,670 --> 00:20:20,160 you cannot form the idea of one object which can't penetrate another one. 169 00:20:20,820 --> 00:20:25,740 You've got to have some independent content to that idea, and you can't get it from the notion of solidity. 170 00:20:27,210 --> 00:20:32,190 Our modern philosophy, therefore, leaves us no, just no satisfactory idea of matter. 171 00:20:34,170 --> 00:20:37,920 So HUME elaborates on this argument at some length, and it's an interesting passage to read. 172 00:20:37,920 --> 00:20:51,190 I recommend that you do. The conclusion is that there is a direct and total opposition betwixt our reason and our senses, or more properly, 173 00:20:52,240 --> 00:21:00,400 betwixt those conclusions we form from cause and effect and those that persuade us of the continued and independent existence of body. 174 00:21:00,970 --> 00:21:08,440 So remember, he had the causal argument that from which we conclude that secondary qualities don't exist outside the mind. 175 00:21:08,740 --> 00:21:14,680 And now he followed that up with an argument that says, without appeal to secondary qualities, 176 00:21:14,680 --> 00:21:20,320 we cannot actually form any coherent idea of an extended body. 177 00:21:22,620 --> 00:21:27,960 So the conclusion of one, four four of the treaties seems profoundly sceptical. 178 00:21:28,650 --> 00:21:39,360 HUME has shown apparently that there is a conflict between two pretty basic parts of our mental capacities. 179 00:21:39,360 --> 00:21:49,950 That is our causal reasoning, without which we can't form any conclusions beyond memory and senses and our belief in an external world. 180 00:22:01,300 --> 00:22:07,540 Okay. Now let's move on to the final parts of one of the treaties. 181 00:22:09,720 --> 00:22:14,370 The soul and the self, which are discussed in one for five and one for six. 182 00:22:15,000 --> 00:22:18,390 And then I'll be finishing off with some words about Hume's conclusion. 183 00:22:22,520 --> 00:22:29,420 So after one fall for him says, right, we're going to leave behind the external world and turn to the internal world. 184 00:22:29,720 --> 00:22:37,420 We found all these contradictions in our thoughts about external objects from one fourth to all those problems about identity, 185 00:22:38,600 --> 00:22:44,420 and now one for four, we find this conflict between causal reasoning and belief in body. 186 00:22:46,910 --> 00:22:50,540 Now let's go on to the world of the mind, the intellectual world. 187 00:22:51,350 --> 00:22:54,710 And HUME says here, we won't find any contradictions like that. 188 00:22:56,420 --> 00:23:02,120 As we will see, that complacent view does not last. 189 00:23:05,440 --> 00:23:11,589 So I'm going to just sketch, first of all, what goes on in one, four, five of the materiality of the. 190 00:23:11,590 --> 00:23:17,000 So it's a section that is widely ignored actually in books on him, which I think is a great shame. 191 00:23:18,160 --> 00:23:22,360 It's actually quite a rich section and it's got some parts in it that are very important. 192 00:23:22,840 --> 00:23:27,700 What I'm going to do now is just give you a very quick guide through what is discussed. 193 00:23:29,860 --> 00:23:36,820 So at the beginning, human attacks, the notion of mental substance, of course, he's already attacked the notion of physical substance. 194 00:23:37,150 --> 00:23:46,000 And the attack is in very much the same spirit. He appeals to the copy principle to deny that there is any impression from which this 195 00:23:46,000 --> 00:23:51,550 idea can be derived and he condemns the notion of mental substance is meaningless. 196 00:23:52,090 --> 00:24:00,580 So the question as to whether our souls, as it were, consist of mental substance is shown to be a meaningless question. 197 00:24:00,850 --> 00:24:03,250 We don't even understand the terms in which it's posed. 198 00:24:06,110 --> 00:24:18,430 Then from one four, five, 7 to 16 human thoughts on the discussion of the location of perceptions and whether perceptions are extended here. 199 00:24:18,440 --> 00:24:24,710 He says quite clearly that the only perceptions that have extension or location are those of sight or touch. 200 00:24:25,160 --> 00:24:29,809 Again, you can see this is linking up with what he said about how we form our ideas of 201 00:24:29,810 --> 00:24:35,810 extension in the context of external body perceptions either of sight or touch. 202 00:24:36,500 --> 00:24:41,960 So other perceptions like smell, for example, has no physical location. 203 00:24:43,040 --> 00:24:51,830 When we experience a smell that is not physically located, not spatially located. 204 00:24:53,750 --> 00:24:56,870 Now, nevertheless, suppose I smell a thing. 205 00:24:59,020 --> 00:25:05,830 I naturally attribute the smell and the taste when I tasted to the physical object itself. 206 00:25:06,580 --> 00:25:17,410 That's an illusion. It's a mistake. We naturally do it because we're so used to associating the physical fig with the taste and the smell. 207 00:25:18,340 --> 00:25:25,300 They come together so often that we naturally attribute the taste and smell as though they were spatially located. 208 00:25:25,960 --> 00:25:32,320 Now, Human actually refers forward to this passage from the discussion of causation. 209 00:25:33,430 --> 00:25:45,520 One three 1425 You'll see those notes there. Footnote 32 When he he says that this illusion is similar to the illusion whereby we spread 210 00:25:45,520 --> 00:25:52,300 our minds on external objects when we attribute causation causal powers to external objects. 211 00:25:53,620 --> 00:26:02,769 So that's a passage which sort of backs up the, the interpretation of human causation as saying that we're making a mistake when 212 00:26:02,770 --> 00:26:08,770 we view causal powers as directly attributed to external objects or attributable. 213 00:26:14,310 --> 00:26:22,440 One for 517 to 28 is a discussion of Spinoza. 214 00:26:22,800 --> 00:26:32,460 It can be a little bit difficult to interpret. It seemed here that HUME is really having some fun at the expense of people who criticise Spinoza. 215 00:26:33,330 --> 00:26:37,290 But Spinoza is widely considered at the time to be an atheist. 216 00:26:39,000 --> 00:26:46,800 He has the hideous hypothesis that the entire world consists of one simple substance God or nature. 217 00:26:48,270 --> 00:26:55,320 But clearly it's not a conventional idea of God. Hence, he is viewed with nearly as much repugnance as Hobbes. 218 00:26:58,310 --> 00:27:09,590 And what HUME does is ingeniously turn the objections against Spinoza, against the idea of a simple soul. 219 00:27:11,300 --> 00:27:18,800 So theologians believe that we have a simple and compounded soul, that the soul is essentially simple. 220 00:27:20,030 --> 00:27:26,480 And we have all these ideas. But those ideas are supposed to be modifications somehow of the simple soul. 221 00:27:28,340 --> 00:27:33,080 Spinoza believes that the world all consists of one simple substance, 222 00:27:33,320 --> 00:27:36,650 and that the objects in the world are modifications of this one simple substance. 223 00:27:37,880 --> 00:27:41,540 So any objections to the latter apply also to the former. 224 00:27:44,200 --> 00:27:51,610 So if it's quite an interesting discussion, I'm not particularly essential, I think, for understanding Hume's philosophy. 225 00:27:52,030 --> 00:28:02,230 As I say, he's more having fun at the expense of certain theologians, in fact, you know, the the conventional orthodoxy at the time. 226 00:28:06,110 --> 00:28:10,549 The most important part of this section comes later. And here he's defending materialism. 227 00:28:10,550 --> 00:28:15,770 So having defended Spinoza, he now goes on to defend Hobbes. 228 00:28:16,670 --> 00:28:22,310 You can see that this is a section not calculated to appeal to Orthodox Christians. 229 00:28:25,110 --> 00:28:31,740 So here he considers the standard argument which many, many philosophers had brought against Hobbs. 230 00:28:32,880 --> 00:28:38,820 Hobbs claimed that everything that exists is material, hence materialist, 231 00:28:40,410 --> 00:28:47,549 and the standard objection was that matter cannot possibly think since you can't have thinking 232 00:28:47,550 --> 00:28:52,440 matter that proves that there must be something more than the material world in particular, 233 00:28:52,440 --> 00:28:59,220 we must have immaterial souls, etc. Locke had used a somewhat similar argument to prove the existence of God. 234 00:28:59,940 --> 00:29:04,710 He said By sort of cosmological reasoning, there must be a first cause. 235 00:29:05,280 --> 00:29:09,660 But the first cause can't be material because matter by itself could not cause thought. 236 00:29:12,240 --> 00:29:19,410 And the arguments based on the the general view that the so much difference between 237 00:29:19,410 --> 00:29:25,080 thought and matter in motion that there's no way the former could arise from the latter. 238 00:29:27,000 --> 00:29:31,170 Well, it seems quite a tempting argument, and yet nothing in the world is more easy than to refute it. 239 00:29:31,860 --> 00:29:36,870 We need only to reflect on what has been proved at large to consider the matter a priori. 240 00:29:37,110 --> 00:29:45,150 Anything may produce anything, and that we shall never discover a reason what any object may or may not be the cause of any other, 241 00:29:45,810 --> 00:29:48,930 however great or however little the resemblance may be between them. 242 00:29:49,680 --> 00:29:52,980 So it's a direct appeal to humans analysis of causation, he said. 243 00:29:53,280 --> 00:29:56,880 Causation is a matter of constant conjunction. That's it. 244 00:29:57,780 --> 00:30:03,059 You don't need a resemblance between cause and effect. And it's an empirical question. 245 00:30:03,060 --> 00:30:19,180 What is constantly conjoined with what? In fact, we find by experience that material motion and thought are constantly conjoined, 246 00:30:19,720 --> 00:30:24,190 which being all the circumstances that enter into the idea of cause and effect. 247 00:30:24,370 --> 00:30:30,880 We may certainly conclude that motion may be and actually is the cause of thought and perception. 248 00:30:31,540 --> 00:30:37,960 Again, a direct appeal to his analysis of causation in terms of constant conjunction. 249 00:30:40,220 --> 00:30:45,500 As the constant conjunction of objects constitutes the very essence of cause and effect, 250 00:30:46,250 --> 00:30:51,620 matter and motion may often be regarded as the causes of thought as far as we have any notion of that relation. 251 00:30:57,160 --> 00:31:10,390 In one for 531, he introduces a dilemma, and in the remainder of the paragraph he argues for the second pawn of the dilemma. 252 00:31:10,660 --> 00:31:20,290 That is very clearly says All objects which we find constantly conjoined are upon that account to be regarded as causes and effects. 253 00:31:20,780 --> 00:31:26,139 When he repeats that later, he says, are upon that account alone to be regarded as causes in effect. 254 00:31:26,140 --> 00:31:37,300 So you establish a constant conjunction that's, you know, that gives you a causal relation that suffices to ascribe causation between them. 255 00:31:40,600 --> 00:31:47,080 So the these end passages, these end paragraphs in one for five are, I think, very significant. 256 00:31:47,470 --> 00:31:56,560 They, together with the discussions of liberty and necessity, are where HUME actually applies the definition of causation that he's given in one 314. 257 00:31:57,490 --> 00:32:01,930 And in both cases, they're in aid of a similar sort of enterprise. 258 00:32:01,930 --> 00:32:10,540 What he's trying to do is vindicate the application of causal reasoning, causal scientific, inductive reasoning to the mental world. 259 00:32:11,530 --> 00:32:18,910 And here what he's saying is there is no conflict between having causal relations between physical things and mental things. 260 00:32:19,030 --> 00:32:25,180 That's fine. It's just a matter of constant conjunction in of liberty and necessity, which we've seen before. 261 00:32:26,230 --> 00:32:32,139 He's using the same analysis of causation to say that necessity applies just 262 00:32:32,140 --> 00:32:35,230 as much to the operations of the mind as it does to the operations of body. 263 00:32:35,470 --> 00:32:40,570 We can have a deterministic science of mind, just like we can have a deterministic science of body. 264 00:32:42,220 --> 00:32:48,160 So one 314 of the treatise, the famous discussion of the idea of necessary connection. 265 00:32:49,180 --> 00:32:54,970 This is where it has the payoff for HUME in supporting materialism, supporting determinism, 266 00:32:55,180 --> 00:33:04,510 bringing empirical science, the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects, into the science of the mind. 267 00:33:05,020 --> 00:33:12,250 And that is the subtitle of the treatise, an attempt to introduce the Experimental Method of reasoning into moral subjects. 268 00:33:12,940 --> 00:33:16,120 So this is quite, quite a key part of Hume's philosophy. 269 00:33:20,700 --> 00:33:27,660 But one final thing about one, four or five, there's an interesting mistake at the end of it. 270 00:33:30,360 --> 00:33:35,370 The final paragraph starts off by emphasising Hume's main point. 271 00:33:36,030 --> 00:33:43,110 But then, if you look at the last two sentences, you'll see that he starts referring to the immortality of the soul. 272 00:33:43,230 --> 00:33:48,690 He hasn't said anything about the immortality of the soul. He's been talking about the materiality of the soul. 273 00:33:49,620 --> 00:33:53,250 And suddenly he seems to be referring to arguments which aren't there in the text. 274 00:33:53,850 --> 00:34:05,070 What's going on? Well, we have the essay of The Immortality of the Soul, which HUME nearly published in 1755, but then suppressed. 275 00:34:05,910 --> 00:34:10,830 And it ended up being published only after his death. He'd left it for posthumous publication. 276 00:34:10,980 --> 00:34:14,730 It was too dangerous. It's an excellent essay. 277 00:34:14,880 --> 00:34:20,010 Lovely. The epitome of Hume's philosophy applied to the question of the immortality of the soul. 278 00:34:21,480 --> 00:34:27,510 Well, in a letter to Henry HUME, who later became Lord Keynes in 1737, HUME said, 279 00:34:27,750 --> 00:34:36,960 I am at present castrating my work that is cutting off its noble parts in order that it shouldn't give offence. 280 00:34:37,170 --> 00:34:47,040 Because he wanted to give the treatise to Joseph Butler, Bishop Joseph Butler and others in the hope of getting, as it were, a good report. 281 00:34:48,900 --> 00:34:59,160 So he cut out various religious discussions, probably of something a predecessor of of miracles, which later turned up in the enquiry Section ten. 282 00:34:59,700 --> 00:35:05,580 And it seems almost certain that HUME had this at some point in the treatise in the manuscript. 283 00:35:05,790 --> 00:35:09,630 He his discussion of immortality or something like it was there. 284 00:35:14,490 --> 00:35:23,940 Okay. Let's now move on to the penultimate section of book, one of the treaties, famous section of personal identity. 285 00:35:26,510 --> 00:35:32,750 So first of all, who wields the coffee principle to deny that we have any idea of the self, 286 00:35:33,290 --> 00:35:41,150 which is anything like the sort of standard notion the self is supposed to have perfect identity and simplicity? 287 00:35:42,320 --> 00:35:46,610 Well, when we look inside ourselves, look at the impressions that we get. 288 00:35:47,300 --> 00:35:51,230 We don't find any impression that corresponds to that kind of idea. 289 00:35:51,950 --> 00:35:58,820 So there's no way that we can have a legitimate idea of the self of that kind. 290 00:35:59,780 --> 00:36:08,030 When I look inside myself, I always stumble on some particular perception or other of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. 291 00:36:08,420 --> 00:36:16,160 I never can catch myself at any time without a perception and never can observe anything but the perception. 292 00:36:18,740 --> 00:36:27,050 So this drives us to Hume's famous bundle Theory of the Self, or at least the bundle theory of our Idea of the self. 293 00:36:28,100 --> 00:36:33,410 Now think back to what Kim said about the idea of substance. 294 00:36:34,610 --> 00:36:39,180 He criticised those who think we have some simple idea of substance. 295 00:36:39,200 --> 00:36:49,310 The ancient philosophers, for example. But at the same point, he praised Locke for saying that we have a complex ideas of substances, 296 00:36:49,640 --> 00:36:55,490 that our ideas of substances, as it were, and an amalgam of all the various qualities that we attribute to it. 297 00:36:56,330 --> 00:37:00,140 And he seems to be saying something similar here about the idea of the self. 298 00:37:00,410 --> 00:37:06,260 The legitimate idea of the self is not simple and uniform. 299 00:37:07,250 --> 00:37:11,690 It's the idea of a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed 300 00:37:11,690 --> 00:37:18,140 each other with an inconceivable rapidity and are in perpetual flux and movement. 301 00:37:19,640 --> 00:37:23,870 So that's the bundle theory for which he is very famous. 302 00:37:27,090 --> 00:37:37,560 So the rest of the section is devoted largely to explaining how it is that we are led to attribute an identity to the self. 303 00:37:38,400 --> 00:37:46,890 And he's going along very similar moves to those that we saw in one or two of scepticism with regard to the senses. 304 00:37:47,640 --> 00:37:55,020 Just as when we look at external objects and we find that they exhibit constancy and coherence, 305 00:37:55,830 --> 00:38:01,450 we are seduced by that into thinking of them as persisting identical things. 306 00:38:01,470 --> 00:38:06,030 Even though strictly something can't be identical over time unless it's completely unchanging. 307 00:38:06,750 --> 00:38:09,840 Our imagination seduces us into making that mistake. 308 00:38:10,950 --> 00:38:18,510 And now he's going to say that our idea of the self likewise arises from a similar cause. 309 00:38:20,070 --> 00:38:24,810 So he's going to explain our pretension to ascribe an identity to these successive 310 00:38:25,170 --> 00:38:31,290 perceptions and to suppose ourselves possessed of an invariable and uninterrupted existence. 311 00:38:35,070 --> 00:38:38,040 Think about when we attribute identity to plants and animals. 312 00:38:39,030 --> 00:38:50,850 Plants change over time, but they change slowly, so we naturally mistake the gradual change for a continuing identity. 313 00:38:51,390 --> 00:38:57,300 Again, I don't think that humans discussion of identity, frankly, is his strongest philosophical card. 314 00:38:58,440 --> 00:39:08,160 He does, as I mentioned before, tend to just assume that identity over time can only make sense if you have unchanged ability. 315 00:39:09,330 --> 00:39:17,160 And that seems to me, at any rate, to be something of a confusion between numerical identity and similarity. 316 00:39:20,130 --> 00:39:24,690 In his later works, HUME does not discuss the notion of identity. 317 00:39:25,170 --> 00:39:28,200 This kind of thing disappears. 318 00:39:28,620 --> 00:39:37,920 And so I personally am inclined to think that it's his view about identity is not, as it were, part of his long term settled view. 319 00:39:41,560 --> 00:39:47,950 Anyway, here he's going to say very similar things about personal identity to what he says about external objects. 320 00:39:50,460 --> 00:40:03,200 So I say we we see gradual change, a kind of constancy and coherence, and that naturally leads us to think that there's something identical there. 321 00:40:05,210 --> 00:40:09,310 We realise that that's absurd when we actually have noticed that it's changed. 322 00:40:09,320 --> 00:40:14,260 The thing has changed a lot over time. We look at a plant in one season and then another season. 323 00:40:14,480 --> 00:40:16,250 I don't know. It's actually very different. 324 00:40:17,330 --> 00:40:25,850 So we feign some new and unintelligible principle that binds the things together and when we do that kind of thing, 325 00:40:25,850 --> 00:40:31,130 in the case of personal identity, that's how we run into the notion of a soul and self and substance. 326 00:40:32,240 --> 00:40:35,899 So again, we've got that notion of substance. The notion of substance. 327 00:40:35,900 --> 00:40:46,160 HUME is suggesting, at least when it's thought of something simple and continuing, arises from this kind of imaginative mistake. 328 00:40:49,610 --> 00:40:55,850 So to prove this hypothesis of how we come to ascribe personal identity, 329 00:40:56,570 --> 00:41:01,580 HUME sets out to show that the objects which are variable or interrupted and yet are supposed to 330 00:41:01,580 --> 00:41:08,030 continue the same are such only as consist of a succession of parts connected together by resemblance, 331 00:41:08,030 --> 00:41:13,310 contiguity or causation. In other words, by the associative principles of the mind, 332 00:41:13,490 --> 00:41:24,470 remember resemblance contiguity causation humans identified way back in book one part one as the three principles of association of ideas. 333 00:41:26,720 --> 00:41:34,880 And he goes on to illustrate this. He talks about the circumstances in which in which we most naturally attribute identity to things. 334 00:41:35,150 --> 00:41:40,430 When changes are gradual, when they are proportionately small, at least at a time, 335 00:41:41,390 --> 00:41:46,580 and when things serve to some common end or purpose, he gives an example. 336 00:41:46,670 --> 00:41:51,409 Suppose there's a church built somewhere, an old church, and it falls down, 337 00:41:51,410 --> 00:41:57,350 or it's knocked down and then replaced by another church because they're serving the same purpose, 338 00:41:57,500 --> 00:42:05,240 providing a church for a particular town or village. We naturally talk of them as the same church, even though they clearly aren't. 339 00:42:10,480 --> 00:42:16,630 So when we attribute personal identity, it's just one more example of the same kind of thing. 340 00:42:22,620 --> 00:42:30,540 Obviously all this is saying that the attribute attribution of personal identity that we make is standardly mistaken. 341 00:42:30,540 --> 00:42:36,780 If we think of personal identity as involving any more than that bundle, we're actually making a mistake. 342 00:42:38,460 --> 00:42:43,860 But to justify the claim that it is a mistake, HUME again emphasises, Look inside yourself. 343 00:42:43,870 --> 00:42:48,540 You won't actually see any real connection between those perceptions. 344 00:42:53,180 --> 00:43:01,670 So our notions of personal identity proceed entirely from the smooth and uninterrupted progress of the thought along a train of connected ideas. 345 00:43:02,930 --> 00:43:11,660 Now, this might seem puzzling. You might think, well, look, if there's a train of connected ideas, what is it that's being seduced into this illusion? 346 00:43:12,380 --> 00:43:17,720 Doesn't there have to be an identical person who is suffering, as it were, 347 00:43:17,720 --> 00:43:25,850 this seduction in order to be in order to be confused into attributing identity? 348 00:43:25,850 --> 00:43:28,460 Doesn't that have to be an eye that is being confused? 349 00:43:29,870 --> 00:43:37,820 And you can see that this sort of thing leads to real big questions about what's going on in humans account of personal identity. 350 00:43:38,090 --> 00:43:42,650 So a lot of secondary literature is a attribute. 351 00:43:42,660 --> 00:43:46,040 Some of the problems that HUME has to that kind of thought. 352 00:43:47,480 --> 00:43:55,640 What you seems to be doing is explaining the genesis of a particular mistake, an idea of personal identity. 353 00:43:57,050 --> 00:44:02,060 And I think if you take it in that way, you don't have to read him as fundamentally confused here. 354 00:44:04,560 --> 00:44:08,640 So he talks about resemblance and causation and how they give rise to the idea. 355 00:44:09,510 --> 00:44:12,690 And he explains why memory is particularly key. 356 00:44:12,990 --> 00:44:20,819 Memory produces resemblance between our perceptions. When I remember something, the perception, the memory perception that arises in my mind, 357 00:44:20,820 --> 00:44:25,800 the idea of memory is very resembling to the thing of which it's a memory. 358 00:44:27,420 --> 00:44:37,950 And when we are concerned about our future, we think about the future that brings up emotions which are causally connected with the future. 359 00:44:38,670 --> 00:44:46,890 So there are resembling and causal connections and both of these are largely mediated by the memory. 360 00:44:47,130 --> 00:44:56,130 So it's no surprise that Locke saw memory as the key to personal identity, that humans insistent that memory isn't the whole thing. 361 00:44:56,130 --> 00:44:59,430 It's not that memory makes personal identity. 362 00:45:00,900 --> 00:45:04,500 It partly does, but it also discovers personal identity. 363 00:45:04,500 --> 00:45:14,430 There is this connection, causal connection, associative connections between our ideas and impressions and memory reveals that. 364 00:45:17,850 --> 00:45:27,840 Now his theory of personal identity has given rise to very complex and protracted discussions in the secondary literature. 365 00:45:30,300 --> 00:45:33,540 Perhaps the main reason for this is that in the appendix to the treaty, 366 00:45:33,540 --> 00:45:39,360 so this is published just 21 months later, is published together with Book three of the treaties. 367 00:45:40,140 --> 00:45:44,730 HUME says, Oh, dear. My account of personal identity won't work. 368 00:45:44,910 --> 00:45:53,100 Upon a more strict review of the section concerning personal identity, I find myself involved in such a labyrinth that I must confess, 369 00:45:53,520 --> 00:45:58,740 I neither know how to correct my former opinions nor how to render them consistent. 370 00:46:00,510 --> 00:46:05,280 Now, it would be nice if HUME at this point had taken the trouble to spell out exactly what the problem is. 371 00:46:05,970 --> 00:46:11,520 But he doesn't do that. Or at least the spelling out that he gives is extremely confusing. 372 00:46:11,970 --> 00:46:17,490 So it has become something of a an industry amongst HUME scholars to speculate on what is going on. 373 00:46:17,790 --> 00:46:21,540 You get probably as many different accounts of this as there are commentators. 374 00:46:22,320 --> 00:46:28,170 In short, there are two principles which I cannot render consistent, nor is it in my power to renounce either of them, 375 00:46:28,710 --> 00:46:37,260 which is that all our distinct perceptions are distinct existences, and that the mind never perceives any real connection among distinct existences. 376 00:46:39,590 --> 00:46:47,330 No contradiction between those two. So why is it his why is he saying but he has such a difficulty in rendering them consistent? 377 00:46:48,260 --> 00:46:53,810 Well, I don't propose to go into that. But be aware, if you read Human Personal Identity, 378 00:46:54,110 --> 00:46:59,870 a lot of the intricacies of those discussions are driven by trying to make sense of what 379 00:46:59,870 --> 00:47:06,380 he says here and fitting it in with what is actually in the section of personal identity. 380 00:47:10,130 --> 00:47:18,380 So to finish off, let's look very briefly at another very complex section Treaties 147 conclusion of this book. 381 00:47:20,570 --> 00:47:23,920 What makes this very hard to understand is that it's very dynamic, 382 00:47:24,230 --> 00:47:34,850 seems to go through a sequence of thoughts and a sequence of emotional changes with those thoughts going from despair to optimism to complacency. 383 00:47:39,350 --> 00:47:43,310 Most of our mental processes have been shown to be dependent on the imagination, 384 00:47:45,650 --> 00:47:49,730 but the imagination seems rather inconstant, something that we do not want to rely on. 385 00:47:50,630 --> 00:47:59,570 And in fact, treaties one, four, four has found a manifest contradiction between two aspects of our imaginative thought. 386 00:47:59,720 --> 00:48:04,610 One of them to do with causal reasoning and one of them to do with our belief in the continued existence of matter. 387 00:48:04,850 --> 00:48:08,150 We've got that contradiction from the section of the modern philosophy. 388 00:48:09,770 --> 00:48:14,960 We've also got confusion about the notion of causation as revealed at one 314. 389 00:48:15,320 --> 00:48:20,810 So HUME is referring back quite explicitly, usually with footnotes to these various sections. 390 00:48:23,220 --> 00:48:33,150 That leads us into a dangerous dilemma. If we assent to every trivial suggestion of the fantasy, the imagination, 391 00:48:33,150 --> 00:48:38,640 if we follow all the different imaginative principles will be led into contradiction. 392 00:48:41,010 --> 00:48:45,840 Moreover, it will also give us ridiculous views like those of the ancient philosophers. 393 00:48:46,800 --> 00:48:50,550 So we do not want to follow all the different principles of the imagination. 394 00:48:50,820 --> 00:48:52,650 How are we going to choose which to follow? 395 00:48:52,740 --> 00:48:59,940 Well, the natural thing to do is to say, let's just adhere to the general, more established principles of the imagination, 396 00:49:00,150 --> 00:49:04,170 the ones that in that famous passage at the beginning of one, four, four, 397 00:49:04,860 --> 00:49:09,450 he had used to distinguish his reliance on the imagination from that of the ancient philosophers. 398 00:49:10,170 --> 00:49:15,640 The ancient philosophers allowed themselves to be pulled around by all these trivial suggestions of the imagination. 399 00:49:17,010 --> 00:49:21,990 Whereas HUME himself only relies on the general to more establish the causal reasoning. 400 00:49:22,170 --> 00:49:30,870 Or at least that's what it seems at that point. The trouble is, if you think back to one for one of scepticism with regard to reason. 401 00:49:31,800 --> 00:49:36,990 HUME has said that the only thing that stops us degenerating into total scepticism about everything 402 00:49:37,860 --> 00:49:44,630 is unfortunately a trivial suggestion of the imagination or a trivial propensity of the imagination, 403 00:49:44,640 --> 00:49:48,450 namely that when we go through a complex argument, we lose track of it. 404 00:49:49,530 --> 00:49:56,520 That's pretty trivial, or it looks that way. So Hume's left at the end of book one of the treaties with a real problem. 405 00:49:57,060 --> 00:50:05,850 It seemed like we had a way of resolving it, of going for the general, more established principles of the imagination, going with causal reasoning, 406 00:50:05,850 --> 00:50:11,820 with induction and so forth, and putting aside the things that lead towards the fictions of the ancient philosophers. 407 00:50:12,510 --> 00:50:23,639 But one for one casts very serious doubt on that. And it seems in one for seven, it's a complex matter that many different interpretations have. 408 00:50:23,640 --> 00:50:29,400 Many different views on this section haven't. There's no this isn't the place to discuss that at length. 409 00:50:30,660 --> 00:50:38,970 But it seems that Hume's answer to scepticism in the treatise comes down to the same sorts of thing that he was saying at the end of one for two, 410 00:50:39,150 --> 00:50:44,040 when he said that carelessness and inattention provide the only remedy. 411 00:50:44,850 --> 00:50:51,870 Again, a famous passage I dine, I play a game of backgammon, I converse and the Mary with my friends. 412 00:50:52,260 --> 00:51:00,270 And afterwards these speculations appear so cold and strained and ridiculous then that I cannot find it in my heart to enter them any farther. 413 00:51:01,020 --> 00:51:09,660 It looks in the treaties as though HUME thinks there is no satisfactory philosophical answer to all these sceptical problems. 414 00:51:10,290 --> 00:51:17,850 We just have to leave them behind us when we go out of the study, dine, play a game of backgammon and so forth. 415 00:51:18,750 --> 00:51:24,060 I think HUME gets much closer to a satisfactory answer in the inquiry. 416 00:51:24,750 --> 00:51:27,660 If you look at Section 12 of the inquiry, particularly, 417 00:51:28,110 --> 00:51:33,540 that is Hume's mature discussion of scepticism, and then he comes to a much more satisfactory view. 418 00:51:33,850 --> 00:51:42,510 He's left behind the problems about identity. He no longer has that argument about scepticism with regard to reason, and as a result, 419 00:51:42,870 --> 00:51:49,109 he is able to rely on causation and induction the general more established principles 420 00:51:49,110 --> 00:51:54,030 of the imagination without running into inconsistency or total scepticism. 421 00:51:55,170 --> 00:51:56,040 Okay. Thank you.