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Some of these are. So again, when they asked you to do a talk about the future of particle physics, I think that is sort of standard.

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Uh, to take your crystal ball and try to understand where you're going.

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Uh, my crystal ball, especially because a lot of people have already spoken about dark matter and the neutrino as a big H on the middle of it.

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Uh, and I think that, you know, where I'm going, but also I'm trying to keep us grounded.

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And so from time to time, I would go back to this event in, um, in 2003 where, um,

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you know, there was a panel on the future of particle physics in which Dom participated.

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That was you can see that some of the people who talk today talk also in these,

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uh, um, in this event and many of the people that are here today, like Chris,

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was also part of this event and commented that this event and this event is interesting because it was about seven years before the start of the LHC,

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and now we are about seven years before the start of the upgrade of the LHC, the I luminosity LHC.

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And again, I think it's good to to keep an eye on where we have gone since then.

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And that event was the chair. The panel was chaired by Carlo Rubia.

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So at that point we had the standard model. And so we had, you know, we knew that we had, uh, a genetic code of, uh,

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of the nuclear war that was composed of quarks and leptons, the quarks and matter particle with spin one offs.

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Uh, we knew that the spin one particles, the force particles of vector boson,

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were responsible for the interaction in the sun, for the weak interactions that I said.

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And, uh, and they said, uh, that we knew that the gluons were responsible for binding together quark to form nuclei.

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And we knew, of course, that electromagnetic interaction was exchanged by the photon.

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And we knew that this first particle was spin, uh, one particle.

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And then we had, say, the spin zero particle, which was not a particle matter or a force particle,

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but this particle was really what was holding together the Standard Model.

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Um, and in fact, without that particle, all the particle in the Standard Model would be massless, and the Standard Model will collapse.

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Uh, so in a sense, in 2003, the X was missing.

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And so we knew what we were going because, uh, we knew also that the cross-section,

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for example, w w scattering will become infinite with energy without the Higgs.

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And so we had what was called an almost theorem, which I think Chris, uh, had in his pocket when he argued for the, uh, LHC.

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Um, so at LHC, we had to find the Higgs or something at that mass scale, which was a very good argument to have to build the, uh, zealotry itself.

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Uh, so nonetheless, you know, it took about 20 years from the original, uh, studies, uh, for the Higgs, its approval, and then to the first collision.

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So this project take a long time, but it was a discovery machine covering all the possible masses between 100 times the mass of the proton to,

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uh, 1000 times the mass of the proton. Uh, and, uh, it's an amazing achievement of our community.

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Uh, we have built the largest and most sophisticated detectors ever, uh, to find the two studies, the result of the LHC.

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We developed a tremendous magnitude reaching eight Tesla to, uh, bind together to keep the proton in this racetrack.

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We are operating ZFC at the highest vacuum, comparable to the matter in outer space.

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We are reaching a temperature at that higher of the temperature of the sun.

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And to operate a superconducting magnet, we are operating at 1.9 Kelvin.

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It's really a tremendous success. Here is a picture of, uh, one of the experiments Atlas where I'm working.

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And here you are sitting more or less in the middle, and you have like the beam pipe here, and you can see the various components.

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So you can see, uh, that you are using to find the, your particle.

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So you have the muon chamber. Out here. Then you have your hadronic calorimeter.

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So, uh, particles that contains quark gets stopped in this calorimeter, and they deposit all their energies there.

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Uh, electrons and photons are going to be stored in the electromagnetic calorimeter,

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and then you are going to have a tracking system inside the magnets, which are bending particle in order to understand the momentum.

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And so you can see here the signature that you will see.

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So only the muon will reach the muon. Uh, chambers.

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Uh, you see he has drawn each particle.

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He has a photon sends electrons and depending that allow you to measure that charge a momentum of charged particles.

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So what was said in 2003? Well, it's really quite interesting.

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I mean, Sheldon Glashow said the astonishing discovery, which do not confirm the theory of anybody in his room.

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So that's a funny, uh. We will find he exists and supersymmetric particles.

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Carlo Rubia. Uh, suppose we don't find the Higgs boson.

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What? What is next? So I would say that there was a lot of people in that panel and in that room that really thought

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that we will not that we will discover supersymmetry and that we might not discovers a Higgs boson.

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Uh, again, what we found instead was that we discovered the Higgs boson.

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And here is just one characteristic.

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One of the most, uh, of the best event where you have said Higgs boson decays into two Z boson and then going to two muons,

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which leads you really a very, very, uh, you know, nice signature.

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And again, what we saw at the end, we saw this is the standard model background without the Higgs,

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and we saw a Higgs particle at 125 GV as, uh, um, really a phenomenon.

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So now the Higgs is a bit older, is about ten years old, and we have measured a lot of the Higgs production and decay.

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And down here you can see the ratio of the production and decay with respect to, uh, uh, with respect to the standard model.

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And you can see that both the production, the decay are really matching.

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If you want to say, uh, what you are predicting in the Standard Model.

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So the Higgs is very standard model like.

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But if you see also what you see here, you see that we have really measured.

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Well, only the coupling of the Higgs to the W and Z boson and the coupling to say very massive quarks and quarks of this generation.

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Well, instead, you know, here is the arrow runs a charm, quark.

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It's it's an almost we are starting to get closer to the muon.

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So we are really still at the very, uh, small picture of the we don't know yet a lot about as the Higgs boson.

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Um, also our understanding of the Standard Model rest on the assumption that the electroweak symmetry breaking occurs.

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So a scalar potential. So, um, in the auto universe, this potential was a parabolic.

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And the Higgs at zero mass, uh, zero value expectation value as a uniform expanded and it became called the, uh, the Higgs vacuum.

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Uh, he got a, uh, expectation value of, uh, 246 weeks ago.

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So it role to see position in this, uh, in this Mexican of potential.

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But we don't really have any experimental evidence that z z is the right potential.

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So, uh, we have a potential with a mass term and as of coupling terms.

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But what we have measured is only what happens very close to the minimum of this curve.

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So this potential could have another minimum.

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And so we could be in a metastable, uh, universe.

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Uh, and we could have some transition probability from this minimum to another minimum.

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And so what we can do is to expand the x potential minus the minimum.

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And we will get try linear coupling terms and quartic coupling terms giving rise if you want to uh to final

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states where we have two x balls on our free expansion which are extremely rare and extremely difficult to study.

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And so these are what are looking for what we we have to look for to see.

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For example, if the Higgs boson gives mass to itself is a self coupling of the explosion which is measured by these,

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uh, uh, of these, uh, number lambda. So we do that already at LHC, for example, here, you know, we see the most, uh, the best ways that we can do now.

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So we have like, for example, we are looking for the Higgs production in the final state, like here is an event that has two digits.

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So we have two jets in the training calorimeter. And on the other side we have uh, in a tronic tau and an electronic tau lepton.

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Uh, and uh, or these are, um, kind.

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Go to events where we have two jets and two photons in the electromagnetic calorimeter.

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So so that's what we are doing now. And here is our maximal sensitivity at the moment we the data that we have collected in round two of the LHC.

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You can see here is a prediction of the standard model as a function of the alpha kappa lambda.

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When I say kappa is also because I have always divided by the standard model.

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And so kappa lambda equals one is the standard model itself.

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And you can see here what we measure experimentally.

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And so wherever the experimental measurements are below the theoretical curve we have excluded that.

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So this is no longer allowed.

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And so you can see that at the moment we have a couple lambda that can be anywhere between -1 and 6.6 at 95% confidence level.

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And we still have a very low vision.

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But we have more improvements that can be implemented.

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And we will collect data until the end of 2025.

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And then we will have the LHC. So.

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And this is our near future. Okay. So here is a plan of the LHC.

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Uh, so we are in what is called run free.

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Uh, and, um, we are here in 2024 and we will run with, uh, the LHC until the end of 2025.

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Then we will add the big shut down to refurbish our experiment in order to be able to take the amount of data that would be,

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uh, will be delivered by the AI that we knowledge at the LHC.

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And, uh, so we will have a two fold increase in statistics by, uh, the end of run three and a 20 fold increase by the end of the LHC,

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which is sort of telling you that we are still at the beginning of the LHC program.

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So what is the physics of the LHC in terms of the Higgs physics,

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where we will do much better in these couple in the coupling of the Higgs to the various particle?

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Uh, we expect to have about 2 to 5% precision in most of the couplings.

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Uh, and but if you can see here, here is a statistical, experimental and theoretical error.

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You can see that we start having that red, uh, bar our almost because and our, um, statistics and our experimental uncertainty.

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So more work is needed by the series in order to make these errors smaller.

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If we want to get more from the data from the LHC, also in terms of a change, uh, in using beta1,

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for example, NB gamma, gamma, we have extrapolated the analysis that I showed you before.

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And you can see here that, uh, for example, if we didn't have any error,

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we would already be able to reach a statistical value, maybe 3000 inverse for the bar.

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We it's you will have to uh, uh, sort of say, uh, black curve.

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Yeah. So you will be able to, uh, to zoom in between 0.3 and 2.1.

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And the value of the standard model is, uh, kappa lambda equal to one.

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Um, again, so if you think that you, we can do better in terms of what are the errors that we have now, we will go between 0 and 2.7.

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But if we stay at the same levels that we are now, our image will not be much sharper.

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We will go only between -0.5 to 5.7 again.

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So we have also combination with uh, the as an experiment that uh, the LHC,

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which is called the CMS, and we expect at least a value of 50% measurement on lambda.

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And this is still very conservative. I mean, machine learning etcetera, has been very, very powerful forces that many open questions remain.

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Uh, what why is the Higgs boson so light?

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What is the mechanism between electromagnetic symmetry breaking?

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Why? We have a free fermion, uh, family of fermions.

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Um, and again, this question seems to be to be, uh, very link, uh, to the Higgs boson through the Higgs couplings.

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Why do quark and charge leptons and neural leptons behave differently?

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And what is the erosion of the neutrino masses?

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Uh, why is a universe matter dominated? Why's gravity so weak?

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And what is dark matter? And what is the dark energy causing the universe?

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Accelerated expansion. So the main problem is really that our, uh, you know, understanding is remains very incomplete.

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And the standard model explained only 5% of the universe.

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So we really want to go beyond that. Nonetheless, the X boson.

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It's very important to all of this question.

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For example, we know that, uh, protons are lighter than neutrons.

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And again, a lot of the protons and the neutral mass is due to electromagnetic and strong forces.

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But again, at the end, the proton is, uh, um, they, uh, the protons are lighter because the up quark is lighter,

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sends a down quark, which is due in in the standard model.

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So the lower is a smaller coupling of the up work with the Higgs boson with respect to sit down quark.

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And again as a atom. As a size because of the bore radius, depend on the mass of the electron,

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and the mass of the electron depend on the coupling of the electron to the Higgs field.

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So, um, unfortunately, this coupling are very small and so it will be very difficult to measure them experimentally.

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If we go again to the 2003 meetings.

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There is another reason why studying the Higgs boson is extremely important.

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The Higgs is a bridge to the vacuum breaking.

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The vacuum symmetry is responsible for the masses of all elementary particles.

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This is closely related to the most unusual property of vacuum dark energy observed by astrophysicists.

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Again, there is a profound connection between particle physics at very small and the very big,

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and it's the first time that we are studying a scalar particle,

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similar to what could be the inflaton responsible to the very rapid expansion of the universe.

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And this was said by level. Kuhn. Interesting.

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Also, Lev was commenting that R&D unclick should be identified intensified.

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Okay, which is quite interesting. So how do we go beyond the LHC and the luminosity LHC?

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Uh, well, we, uh, we don't know the energy scale of the new physics.

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So we have to consider in two different ways.

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We can go there by direct searches, by increasing the mass scale, by increasing the energy,

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going to higher energy accelerator, or also by looking at smaller couplings.

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And uh, in this respect, we can do it by more luminosity at LHC,

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but also by building new machines that we are calling Higgs factory that allow us to look better, more precisely to the Higgs decays.

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And so we have this really twofold approach for looking at the future.

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Uh, so the future of an energy collider is quite complex, and there is a lot of a focus on the Higgs boson.

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Um, here are the words that the two theories said about the Higgs.

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Every problem in the Standard Model originates from the, uh.

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It's interaction was said by Jiang Chen, uh, at CERN.

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And Nina cognac said the Higgs is really new physics, put it under the microscope, studied to death.

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And again, this is also what is the recommendation of looking at, uh,

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particle physics and the future of particle physics is that one of our priorities should be to build the first,

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an electron positron factory, uh, as the next collider.

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And the one at CERN is called FCC, the Future Circular Collider.

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But again, this machine will not do only physics.

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Uh, so the FCC will run between 90 and 350 GV.

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So it will do precision Higgs precision physics at Z boson, the particles that will study at LEP and precision top measurement.

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And then we will add FCC, H.H., which will reach 100 TV, which will explore directly the energy frontier.

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And we also plan a machine that, uh, will bring uh, electron and uh, and uh,

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a proton interaction to understand the proton structure and better in order to really exploit, uh, uh, the, uh, the FCC change.

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So what is this is not the only ideas that is on the table with.

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That is also the ideas that there's been for a long time on the tables.

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It's called the International Linear Collider, uh,

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which will be a machine which will be stopped around 240 GV and then will be upgraded to up maybe two one TV.

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Uh, we have clickers that was mentioned already in 2003, uh,

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which is using novel acceleration techniques are based on AI gradient, uh, room temperature.

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Uh, that's cavities which could reach free TV.

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And then there is a program in China.

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Uh, where do you have any plus or minus machine and I don't know, followed by another machine similar to what is uh, proposed for uh, uh, that uh,

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um, follows the FCC and there are also many new idea emerging that is a cool copper collider at slack, which could be constructed at Fermilab.

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That is Alpha. And we have really one of the persons that that thought about this a very nice idea.

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Brian Foster. Um, uh, we have, uh, colliders that we could use, um, Energy Recovery Linac in order to,

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um, to, to consume less energy for the future, which is very important.

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Sustainability and that are all that idea regaining momentum like muon colliders.

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So, um, and in some of these facility, for example, in the case of ILC, uh, they uh, arrive at a Desy are almost a prototype for these machines.

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So this machine, if there was a money and as a communities, uh, they could be, uh,

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built actually quite, quite, uh, fast again, this project at very, uh, different readiness.

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But I just wanted to show you a little bit is, uh, square root of energy versus the number of explosion, so that I, um, let's see, is here.

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So the LHC will produce, you know, more Higgs boson that, for example, the ILC, etc.

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But because you have collision of proton with proton, you don't have you are not looking at these,

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uh, at these decay in a ways that is very precise, is very imprecise.

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And again, of course, FCC, we, you know, will produce 27,000 million, uh, Higgs boson.

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So it will be really a very different the magnitude of scale.

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So what is the reach of this future collider? Well, here is the initial state of this, uh, future collider.

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And what you can see here in grey, you have, uh, you here you are looking at the Delta k your work in percentage.

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Okay. So is your case or always your, um, you know, your your coupling divided by the standard Model coupling.

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Okay. And in, uh, grey you have, uh, say, um, uh, the LHC, which is already on a, you know, uh, going to operate.

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And you can see here that by having, for example, the is, you know, this other machine,

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you will be able to measure the coupling of the Higgs to the charm.

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And so to starting to explore the coupling of the Higgs with the second generation quarks.

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Again, um, in fact, the FCC will have a reach very close also to measure the coupling to this strange quark,

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which sounded almost impossible, uh, sometime ago.

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And it might be close to measure also the coupling to the electron, which is very difficult.

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Um, okay. Um, and the final stage, when you also have, uh, you know, you see, for example, he has a muon collider.

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You can see, for example, here in dark blue, obviously, if you put together the FCC with FCC,

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uh, you know, you the dark blue here, which is is a complete program of CERN.

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Uh, it really gives you the best performance almost everywhere.

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You have a few places where the muon collider might be a little bit better for each H2WW, but it's really, um, I think that, uh, it's a winner.

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Why do we want to do that? You know, we want to understand, to disentangle the BSM.

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And for example, by measuring the Higgs coupling,

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we can add sort of a single splinter to distinguish between different model areas, for example, the composite peaks.

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Maybe the Higgs is not, uh, an elementary particle or these are a kind of Susy model,

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or if you just have an additional scalar and you can see here that.

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All of these models predict something different with respect to the standard model okay.

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So for example, and you can see also that you need really a precision of about 1% in order to be able to distinguish these various models.

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Also they, uh future Collider will be able really to look at this self coupling, really looking at the shape of the X potential.

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So you can see here, for example the FCC and the muon colliders.

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They will reach a precision of a few percent in this quantity.

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And also we will be able to explore Susy, for example, in direct searches up to ten TV.

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And again, as uh, Jocelyn said, if you have Susy, you will have a fantastic, you know, uh, one of the possible dark matter candidate.

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And again, this region is quite interesting.

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Again, this plot didn't come out very nicely. Uh, but here is the mass of the Higgs versus the mass of, uh, of, um, uh, of this top, uh, quark.

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And you can see that the two plots. There should have been some, some other things.

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The I don't know what's up in, uh, but they cross at about ten TV, so 20 TV seems to be quite an interesting area.

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So where do we stand? Uh, so we have done in 2018 and 2019, we have done a conceptual study of FCC,

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and this was followed by feasibility study and which is is going on right now, and it will finish in 2025.

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And the feasibility study is going to study. Geology is going to optimise.

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Ring placement is going to optimise.

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The design is going to be identified, the R&D that you have to do in order to decrease the cost of this amazing machine and identifies the resources.

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Um, the midterm review was just conducted, uh, presented recently at the CERN council,

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and that's why there was an article on the BBC, uh, media that you might have seen in February.

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Um, so here is the description of the optimise, uh, placement.

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So the circumference is 90.7km and they are going to be eight, uh, surface sides that have been decided.

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And so you might have up to four experiment experiments focusing on different aspects of the physics that can be provided by the LHC as by the FCC,

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like for example, one focusing on Higgs, one could be focus on the, uh, physics that says that the boson one could be focussed on long live particles.

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So there could be a lot of different physics that you could explore.

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And again, for example, CERN has already started to speak with every village around this map in order to get a political consensus,

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and is not only to get the political consensus, you also have to identify there are roads, its power, it's there is water.

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And all of these have been done and trying, you know, to, uh, to go to the detail of this process.

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So what is a timeline? The timeline is a bit scary.

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Okay. Um, so each that you see could start now.

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Um, uh, especially as FCC, we have the technology.

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And so we could have physics operation in around 2040, okay.

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Or perhaps even earlier, but we are still doing the I lumi LHC, so we cannot stop now.

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We don't have the money yet. And so we will have to wait.

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And, uh, for the first stage, uh, we hope to be in operation in 2048 to, you know, it's about 2045 to 2048 until 2063 and then going to say, uh,

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FCC the proton proton and this time will be used to do a lot of R&D in order to really to get these magnets that we will need,

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uh, for reaching this energy. And so the operation will be even later.

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So again so these are amazing project that they will need a lot of R&D to get us there.

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Uh, and you need R&D that we have done actually for ISC.

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We have uh, you know, we have demonstrated that we could have nano beings of the level of 7.7,

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uh, nanometre in order to have the luminosity reach, uh, that is needed as a linear collider.

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Uh, we are trying to get to that, uh, superconducting barrier in order to decrease the cost of these facilities.

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Uh, we are doing now R&D for us FCC to build 16 Tesla magnets, uh, to 12 these, uh, 100 TV beam.

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Uh, and again, we are looking both at, uh, uh, moving from now butane like the magnets that are now reaching eight Tesla at,

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say, uh, LHC to go to uh, now beam 15 and um, and again, uh, as you can see here, we have already small demonstrator.

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But again, it's really difficult to go from a small demonstrator to Turing because you really have to decrease the cost.

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You have to industrialise the process.

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And again, we are also looking at the superconducting, um, you know, uh, low temperature, uh, superconductor, high temperature superconductor.

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Uh, like, for example, in China, they are looking at uh, item based, um, um, uh, AI temperature superconductor.

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And it's we are looking at the practical. You need innovation for the detectors.

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Like for example, for a detector at any place in miners machine, the detector are not used back.

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So you will have to build, you know, if you want to measure the coupling of the Higgs to charm,

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you will have to achieve a resolution of about 1 to 5 micron,

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which means that you will have to have very low material in this detector and dissipate very low power.

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Uh, and again, you will have also to build excellent calorimeter and compact calorimeter.

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And again, there is a lot of, uh, work that is already ongoing here.

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For example, there is a detector that is planned for the Alice detector at CERN where you are using very,

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very, very thin silicon so that you can bend it.

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And so these are detectors that we are building here in Oxford for mu three,

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where we are providing carbon fibre support which is only 25 microns thin.

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Very impressive. And again for FCC we will have huge detector.

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Uh so we will have to build very large carbon.

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Uh, we will have again a very big, uh, silicon track.

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Uh, we will have enormous radiation level at the order of ten to the 18 neutron equivalent per centimetre square.

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We will have to have a very high magnetic field to bend these tracks, and it will be very complex.

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But again, we are doing R&D to try to see how silicon is behaving at very, uh, high doses.

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And we have good news at the moment. We showed that the silicon was becoming sort of worse linearly as a function of, let's say, dose.

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And in fact, now we are seeing with our measurements that the in fact is sort of saturating.

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So we have some hope that silicon with survival shows that we need innovation in computing and analysis.

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Machine learning is a common thread, uh, with everything we do.

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Uh, for example, here is an an atlas to, to distinguish a jet, uh, that is coming from a big walk or a squawk on a light quark.

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We have to measure very precisely, uh, you know, uh, the, uh, the displacement of the vertex from the origin.

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Uh, and again, we are doing this better and better using machine learning, for example, using the, uh, the graph neural network.

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We have obtained a light rejection factor of thousands.

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And so every time we see by using state of the art machine learning, we are doing much better than we expected.

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And and again, by doing that, we are also training a community and young people in, uh, in, in, in things that are very useful for society.

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So in conclusion, findings are exposed as complete as the standard model, but many questions remain unanswered.

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Precision study of the Higgs and going beyond the Standard Model.

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We require a new accelerator. The cost is significant.

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I didn't mention the cost, but it's it's really large, but the physics output is superb and we will use this machine for decades.

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Timelines are very challenges of student training and career because so long as the time scale,

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we will need to be extremely innovative to make the next step and this will have a tremendous societal impact.

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Progress in fundamental physics will be made, as we have seen today with accelerator.

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And I spoke about that neutrinos like Mark and um, and uh, Paul said, uh, by doing very broad searches on from that matter,

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as illustrated by Jocelyn, that also by astrophysics experiment measuring dark energy and dark matter.

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And really here I want to go back to, to to dawn and to finish.

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We've done what Dawn said in 2003 and have gone into this field because I feel that the, the big challenges are there.

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Um, it's a very rapidly moving field, astrophysics.

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It's going a lot faster ahead with time, starting a long way backwards, but it's going faster ahead in time.

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And it's particle physics. So it's something that, uh, one should bear in mind for the very distant future.

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And, um, actually, I don't know how many people here have read this, um, convention.

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Uh, I know it's, uh, 50 years old, but it's never been abrogated.

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And it states very clearly what the duties of the laboratory are was made a long list under the study of cosmic particles appears not once,

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but twice and not much. So we're cleared to do it if we want to do it.

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Uh, uh. So again, as you say, it was really, uh, very strongly pushing for astrophysics experiments.

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Uh, thank you. And I hope that I didn't, uh, go beyond, uh, no, not too bad.