Some of these are. So again, when they asked you to do a talk about the future of particle physics, I think that is sort of standard.
Uh, to take your crystal ball and try to understand where you're going.
Uh, my crystal ball, especially because a lot of people have already spoken about dark matter and the neutrino as a big H on the middle of it.
Uh, and I think that, you know, where I'm going, but also I'm trying to keep us grounded.
And so from time to time, I would go back to this event in, um, in 2003 where, um,
you know, there was a panel on the future of particle physics in which Dom participated.
That was you can see that some of the people who talk today talk also in these,
uh, um, in this event and many of the people that are here today, like Chris,
was also part of this event and commented that this event and this event is interesting because it was about seven years before the start of the LHC,
and now we are about seven years before the start of the upgrade of the LHC, the I luminosity LHC.
And again, I think it's good to to keep an eye on where we have gone since then.
And that event was the chair. The panel was chaired by Carlo Rubia.
So at that point we had the standard model. And so we had, you know, we knew that we had, uh, a genetic code of, uh,
of the nuclear war that was composed of quarks and leptons, the quarks and matter particle with spin one offs.
Uh, we knew that the spin one particles, the force particles of vector boson,
were responsible for the interaction in the sun, for the weak interactions that I said.
And, uh, and they said, uh, that we knew that the gluons were responsible for binding together quark to form nuclei.
And we knew, of course, that electromagnetic interaction was exchanged by the photon.
And we knew that this first particle was spin, uh, one particle.
And then we had, say, the spin zero particle, which was not a particle matter or a force particle,
but this particle was really what was holding together the Standard Model.
Um, and in fact, without that particle, all the particle in the Standard Model would be massless, and the Standard Model will collapse.
Uh, so in a sense, in 2003, the X was missing.
And so we knew what we were going because, uh, we knew also that the cross-section,
for example, w w scattering will become infinite with energy without the Higgs.
And so we had what was called an almost theorem, which I think Chris, uh, had in his pocket when he argued for the, uh, LHC.
Um, so at LHC, we had to find the Higgs or something at that mass scale, which was a very good argument to have to build the, uh, zealotry itself.
Uh, so nonetheless, you know, it took about 20 years from the original, uh, studies, uh, for the Higgs, its approval, and then to the first collision.
So this project take a long time, but it was a discovery machine covering all the possible masses between 100 times the mass of the proton to,
uh, 1000 times the mass of the proton. Uh, and, uh, it's an amazing achievement of our community.
Uh, we have built the largest and most sophisticated detectors ever, uh, to find the two studies, the result of the LHC.
We developed a tremendous magnitude reaching eight Tesla to, uh, bind together to keep the proton in this racetrack.
We are operating ZFC at the highest vacuum, comparable to the matter in outer space.
We are reaching a temperature at that higher of the temperature of the sun.
And to operate a superconducting magnet, we are operating at 1.9 Kelvin.
It's really a tremendous success. Here is a picture of, uh, one of the experiments Atlas where I'm working.
And here you are sitting more or less in the middle, and you have like the beam pipe here, and you can see the various components.
So you can see, uh, that you are using to find the, your particle.
So you have the muon chamber. Out here. Then you have your hadronic calorimeter.
So, uh, particles that contains quark gets stopped in this calorimeter, and they deposit all their energies there.
Uh, electrons and photons are going to be stored in the electromagnetic calorimeter,
and then you are going to have a tracking system inside the magnets, which are bending particle in order to understand the momentum.
And so you can see here the signature that you will see.
So only the muon will reach the muon. Uh, chambers.
Uh, you see he has drawn each particle.
He has a photon sends electrons and depending that allow you to measure that charge a momentum of charged particles.
So what was said in 2003? Well, it's really quite interesting.
I mean, Sheldon Glashow said the astonishing discovery, which do not confirm the theory of anybody in his room.
So that's a funny, uh. We will find he exists and supersymmetric particles.
Carlo Rubia. Uh, suppose we don't find the Higgs boson.
What? What is next? So I would say that there was a lot of people in that panel and in that room that really thought
that we will not that we will discover supersymmetry and that we might not discovers a Higgs boson.
Uh, again, what we found instead was that we discovered the Higgs boson.
And here is just one characteristic.
One of the most, uh, of the best event where you have said Higgs boson decays into two Z boson and then going to two muons,
which leads you really a very, very, uh, you know, nice signature.
And again, what we saw at the end, we saw this is the standard model background without the Higgs,
and we saw a Higgs particle at 125 GV as, uh, um, really a phenomenon.
So now the Higgs is a bit older, is about ten years old, and we have measured a lot of the Higgs production and decay.
And down here you can see the ratio of the production and decay with respect to, uh, uh, with respect to the standard model.
And you can see that both the production, the decay are really matching.
If you want to say, uh, what you are predicting in the Standard Model.
So the Higgs is very standard model like.
But if you see also what you see here, you see that we have really measured.
Well, only the coupling of the Higgs to the W and Z boson and the coupling to say very massive quarks and quarks of this generation.
Well, instead, you know, here is the arrow runs a charm, quark.
It's it's an almost we are starting to get closer to the muon.
So we are really still at the very, uh, small picture of the we don't know yet a lot about as the Higgs boson.
Um, also our understanding of the Standard Model rest on the assumption that the electroweak symmetry breaking occurs.
So a scalar potential. So, um, in the auto universe, this potential was a parabolic.
And the Higgs at zero mass, uh, zero value expectation value as a uniform expanded and it became called the, uh, the Higgs vacuum.
Uh, he got a, uh, expectation value of, uh, 246 weeks ago.
So it role to see position in this, uh, in this Mexican of potential.
But we don't really have any experimental evidence that z z is the right potential.
So, uh, we have a potential with a mass term and as of coupling terms.
But what we have measured is only what happens very close to the minimum of this curve.
So this potential could have another minimum.
And so we could be in a metastable, uh, universe.
Uh, and we could have some transition probability from this minimum to another minimum.
And so what we can do is to expand the x potential minus the minimum.
And we will get try linear coupling terms and quartic coupling terms giving rise if you want to uh to final
states where we have two x balls on our free expansion which are extremely rare and extremely difficult to study.
And so these are what are looking for what we we have to look for to see.
For example, if the Higgs boson gives mass to itself is a self coupling of the explosion which is measured by these,
uh, uh, of these, uh, number lambda. So we do that already at LHC, for example, here, you know, we see the most, uh, the best ways that we can do now.
So we have like, for example, we are looking for the Higgs production in the final state, like here is an event that has two digits.
So we have two jets in the training calorimeter. And on the other side we have uh, in a tronic tau and an electronic tau lepton.
Uh, and uh, or these are, um, kind.
Go to events where we have two jets and two photons in the electromagnetic calorimeter.
So so that's what we are doing now. And here is our maximal sensitivity at the moment we the data that we have collected in round two of the LHC.
You can see here is a prediction of the standard model as a function of the alpha kappa lambda.
When I say kappa is also because I have always divided by the standard model.
And so kappa lambda equals one is the standard model itself.
And you can see here what we measure experimentally.
And so wherever the experimental measurements are below the theoretical curve we have excluded that.
So this is no longer allowed.
And so you can see that at the moment we have a couple lambda that can be anywhere between -1 and 6.6 at 95% confidence level.
And we still have a very low vision.
But we have more improvements that can be implemented.
And we will collect data until the end of 2025.
And then we will have the LHC. So.
And this is our near future. Okay. So here is a plan of the LHC.
Uh, so we are in what is called run free.
Uh, and, um, we are here in 2024 and we will run with, uh, the LHC until the end of 2025.
Then we will add the big shut down to refurbish our experiment in order to be able to take the amount of data that would be,
uh, will be delivered by the AI that we knowledge at the LHC.
And, uh, so we will have a two fold increase in statistics by, uh, the end of run three and a 20 fold increase by the end of the LHC,
which is sort of telling you that we are still at the beginning of the LHC program.
So what is the physics of the LHC in terms of the Higgs physics,
where we will do much better in these couple in the coupling of the Higgs to the various particle?
Uh, we expect to have about 2 to 5% precision in most of the couplings.
Uh, and but if you can see here, here is a statistical, experimental and theoretical error.
You can see that we start having that red, uh, bar our almost because and our, um, statistics and our experimental uncertainty.
So more work is needed by the series in order to make these errors smaller.
If we want to get more from the data from the LHC, also in terms of a change, uh, in using beta1,
for example, NB gamma, gamma, we have extrapolated the analysis that I showed you before.
And you can see here that, uh, for example, if we didn't have any error,
we would already be able to reach a statistical value, maybe 3000 inverse for the bar.
We it's you will have to uh, uh, sort of say, uh, black curve.
Yeah. So you will be able to, uh, to zoom in between 0.3 and 2.1.
And the value of the standard model is, uh, kappa lambda equal to one.
Um, again, so if you think that you, we can do better in terms of what are the errors that we have now, we will go between 0 and 2.7.
But if we stay at the same levels that we are now, our image will not be much sharper.
We will go only between -0.5 to 5.7 again.
So we have also combination with uh, the as an experiment that uh, the LHC,
which is called the CMS, and we expect at least a value of 50% measurement on lambda.
And this is still very conservative. I mean, machine learning etcetera, has been very, very powerful forces that many open questions remain.
Uh, what why is the Higgs boson so light?
What is the mechanism between electromagnetic symmetry breaking?
Why? We have a free fermion, uh, family of fermions.
Um, and again, this question seems to be to be, uh, very link, uh, to the Higgs boson through the Higgs couplings.
Why do quark and charge leptons and neural leptons behave differently?
And what is the erosion of the neutrino masses?
Uh, why is a universe matter dominated? Why's gravity so weak?
And what is dark matter? And what is the dark energy causing the universe?
Accelerated expansion. So the main problem is really that our, uh, you know, understanding is remains very incomplete.
And the standard model explained only 5% of the universe.
So we really want to go beyond that. Nonetheless, the X boson.
It's very important to all of this question.
For example, we know that, uh, protons are lighter than neutrons.
And again, a lot of the protons and the neutral mass is due to electromagnetic and strong forces.
But again, at the end, the proton is, uh, um, they, uh, the protons are lighter because the up quark is lighter,
sends a down quark, which is due in in the standard model.
So the lower is a smaller coupling of the up work with the Higgs boson with respect to sit down quark.
And again as a atom. As a size because of the bore radius, depend on the mass of the electron,
and the mass of the electron depend on the coupling of the electron to the Higgs field.
So, um, unfortunately, this coupling are very small and so it will be very difficult to measure them experimentally.
If we go again to the 2003 meetings.
There is another reason why studying the Higgs boson is extremely important.
The Higgs is a bridge to the vacuum breaking.
The vacuum symmetry is responsible for the masses of all elementary particles.
This is closely related to the most unusual property of vacuum dark energy observed by astrophysicists.
Again, there is a profound connection between particle physics at very small and the very big,
and it's the first time that we are studying a scalar particle,
similar to what could be the inflaton responsible to the very rapid expansion of the universe.
And this was said by level. Kuhn. Interesting.
Also, Lev was commenting that R&D unclick should be identified intensified.
Okay, which is quite interesting. So how do we go beyond the LHC and the luminosity LHC?
Uh, well, we, uh, we don't know the energy scale of the new physics.
So we have to consider in two different ways.
We can go there by direct searches, by increasing the mass scale, by increasing the energy,
going to higher energy accelerator, or also by looking at smaller couplings.
And uh, in this respect, we can do it by more luminosity at LHC,
but also by building new machines that we are calling Higgs factory that allow us to look better, more precisely to the Higgs decays.
And so we have this really twofold approach for looking at the future.
Uh, so the future of an energy collider is quite complex, and there is a lot of a focus on the Higgs boson.
Um, here are the words that the two theories said about the Higgs.
Every problem in the Standard Model originates from the, uh.
It's interaction was said by Jiang Chen, uh, at CERN.
And Nina cognac said the Higgs is really new physics, put it under the microscope, studied to death.
And again, this is also what is the recommendation of looking at, uh,
particle physics and the future of particle physics is that one of our priorities should be to build the first,
an electron positron factory, uh, as the next collider.
And the one at CERN is called FCC, the Future Circular Collider.
But again, this machine will not do only physics.
Uh, so the FCC will run between 90 and 350 GV.
So it will do precision Higgs precision physics at Z boson, the particles that will study at LEP and precision top measurement.
And then we will add FCC, H.H., which will reach 100 TV, which will explore directly the energy frontier.
And we also plan a machine that, uh, will bring uh, electron and uh, and uh,
a proton interaction to understand the proton structure and better in order to really exploit, uh, uh, the, uh, the FCC change.
So what is this is not the only ideas that is on the table with.
That is also the ideas that there's been for a long time on the tables.
It's called the International Linear Collider, uh,
which will be a machine which will be stopped around 240 GV and then will be upgraded to up maybe two one TV.
Uh, we have clickers that was mentioned already in 2003, uh,
which is using novel acceleration techniques are based on AI gradient, uh, room temperature.
Uh, that's cavities which could reach free TV.
And then there is a program in China.
Uh, where do you have any plus or minus machine and I don't know, followed by another machine similar to what is uh, proposed for uh, uh, that uh,
um, follows the FCC and there are also many new idea emerging that is a cool copper collider at slack, which could be constructed at Fermilab.
That is Alpha. And we have really one of the persons that that thought about this a very nice idea.
Brian Foster. Um, uh, we have, uh, colliders that we could use, um, Energy Recovery Linac in order to,
um, to, to consume less energy for the future, which is very important.
Sustainability and that are all that idea regaining momentum like muon colliders.
So, um, and in some of these facility, for example, in the case of ILC, uh, they uh, arrive at a Desy are almost a prototype for these machines.
So this machine, if there was a money and as a communities, uh, they could be, uh,
built actually quite, quite, uh, fast again, this project at very, uh, different readiness.
But I just wanted to show you a little bit is, uh, square root of energy versus the number of explosion, so that I, um, let's see, is here.
So the LHC will produce, you know, more Higgs boson that, for example, the ILC, etc.
But because you have collision of proton with proton, you don't have you are not looking at these,
uh, at these decay in a ways that is very precise, is very imprecise.
And again, of course, FCC, we, you know, will produce 27,000 million, uh, Higgs boson.
So it will be really a very different the magnitude of scale.
So what is the reach of this future collider? Well, here is the initial state of this, uh, future collider.
And what you can see here in grey, you have, uh, you here you are looking at the Delta k your work in percentage.
Okay. So is your case or always your, um, you know, your your coupling divided by the standard Model coupling.
Okay. And in, uh, grey you have, uh, say, um, uh, the LHC, which is already on a, you know, uh, going to operate.
And you can see here that by having, for example, the is, you know, this other machine,
you will be able to measure the coupling of the Higgs to the charm.
And so to starting to explore the coupling of the Higgs with the second generation quarks.
Again, um, in fact, the FCC will have a reach very close also to measure the coupling to this strange quark,
which sounded almost impossible, uh, sometime ago.
And it might be close to measure also the coupling to the electron, which is very difficult.
Um, okay. Um, and the final stage, when you also have, uh, you know, you see, for example, he has a muon collider.
You can see, for example, here in dark blue, obviously, if you put together the FCC with FCC,
uh, you know, you the dark blue here, which is is a complete program of CERN.
Uh, it really gives you the best performance almost everywhere.
You have a few places where the muon collider might be a little bit better for each H2WW, but it's really, um, I think that, uh, it's a winner.
Why do we want to do that? You know, we want to understand, to disentangle the BSM.
And for example, by measuring the Higgs coupling,
we can add sort of a single splinter to distinguish between different model areas, for example, the composite peaks.
Maybe the Higgs is not, uh, an elementary particle or these are a kind of Susy model,
or if you just have an additional scalar and you can see here that.
All of these models predict something different with respect to the standard model okay.
So for example, and you can see also that you need really a precision of about 1% in order to be able to distinguish these various models.
Also they, uh future Collider will be able really to look at this self coupling, really looking at the shape of the X potential.
So you can see here, for example the FCC and the muon colliders.
They will reach a precision of a few percent in this quantity.
And also we will be able to explore Susy, for example, in direct searches up to ten TV.
And again, as uh, Jocelyn said, if you have Susy, you will have a fantastic, you know, uh, one of the possible dark matter candidate.
And again, this region is quite interesting.
Again, this plot didn't come out very nicely. Uh, but here is the mass of the Higgs versus the mass of, uh, of, um, uh, of this top, uh, quark.
And you can see that the two plots. There should have been some, some other things.
The I don't know what's up in, uh, but they cross at about ten TV, so 20 TV seems to be quite an interesting area.
So where do we stand? Uh, so we have done in 2018 and 2019, we have done a conceptual study of FCC,
and this was followed by feasibility study and which is is going on right now, and it will finish in 2025.
And the feasibility study is going to study. Geology is going to optimise.
Ring placement is going to optimise.
The design is going to be identified, the R&D that you have to do in order to decrease the cost of this amazing machine and identifies the resources.
Um, the midterm review was just conducted, uh, presented recently at the CERN council,
and that's why there was an article on the BBC, uh, media that you might have seen in February.
Um, so here is the description of the optimise, uh, placement.
So the circumference is 90.7km and they are going to be eight, uh, surface sides that have been decided.
And so you might have up to four experiment experiments focusing on different aspects of the physics that can be provided by the LHC as by the FCC,
like for example, one focusing on Higgs, one could be focus on the, uh, physics that says that the boson one could be focussed on long live particles.
So there could be a lot of different physics that you could explore.
And again, for example, CERN has already started to speak with every village around this map in order to get a political consensus,
and is not only to get the political consensus, you also have to identify there are roads, its power, it's there is water.
And all of these have been done and trying, you know, to, uh, to go to the detail of this process.
So what is a timeline? The timeline is a bit scary.
Okay. Um, so each that you see could start now.
Um, uh, especially as FCC, we have the technology.
And so we could have physics operation in around 2040, okay.
Or perhaps even earlier, but we are still doing the I lumi LHC, so we cannot stop now.
We don't have the money yet. And so we will have to wait.
And, uh, for the first stage, uh, we hope to be in operation in 2048 to, you know, it's about 2045 to 2048 until 2063 and then going to say, uh,
FCC the proton proton and this time will be used to do a lot of R&D in order to really to get these magnets that we will need,
uh, for reaching this energy. And so the operation will be even later.
So again so these are amazing project that they will need a lot of R&D to get us there.
Uh, and you need R&D that we have done actually for ISC.
We have uh, you know, we have demonstrated that we could have nano beings of the level of 7.7,
uh, nanometre in order to have the luminosity reach, uh, that is needed as a linear collider.
Uh, we are trying to get to that, uh, superconducting barrier in order to decrease the cost of these facilities.
Uh, we are doing now R&D for us FCC to build 16 Tesla magnets, uh, to 12 these, uh, 100 TV beam.
Uh, and again, we are looking both at, uh, uh, moving from now butane like the magnets that are now reaching eight Tesla at,
say, uh, LHC to go to uh, now beam 15 and um, and again, uh, as you can see here, we have already small demonstrator.
But again, it's really difficult to go from a small demonstrator to Turing because you really have to decrease the cost.
You have to industrialise the process.
And again, we are also looking at the superconducting, um, you know, uh, low temperature, uh, superconductor, high temperature superconductor.
Uh, like, for example, in China, they are looking at uh, item based, um, um, uh, AI temperature superconductor.
And it's we are looking at the practical. You need innovation for the detectors.
Like for example, for a detector at any place in miners machine, the detector are not used back.
So you will have to build, you know, if you want to measure the coupling of the Higgs to charm,
you will have to achieve a resolution of about 1 to 5 micron,
which means that you will have to have very low material in this detector and dissipate very low power.
Uh, and again, you will have also to build excellent calorimeter and compact calorimeter.
And again, there is a lot of, uh, work that is already ongoing here.
For example, there is a detector that is planned for the Alice detector at CERN where you are using very,
very, very thin silicon so that you can bend it.
And so these are detectors that we are building here in Oxford for mu three,
where we are providing carbon fibre support which is only 25 microns thin.
Very impressive. And again for FCC we will have huge detector.
Uh so we will have to build very large carbon.
Uh, we will have again a very big, uh, silicon track.
Uh, we will have enormous radiation level at the order of ten to the 18 neutron equivalent per centimetre square.
We will have to have a very high magnetic field to bend these tracks, and it will be very complex.
But again, we are doing R&D to try to see how silicon is behaving at very, uh, high doses.
And we have good news at the moment. We showed that the silicon was becoming sort of worse linearly as a function of, let's say, dose.
And in fact, now we are seeing with our measurements that the in fact is sort of saturating.
So we have some hope that silicon with survival shows that we need innovation in computing and analysis.
Machine learning is a common thread, uh, with everything we do.
Uh, for example, here is an an atlas to, to distinguish a jet, uh, that is coming from a big walk or a squawk on a light quark.
We have to measure very precisely, uh, you know, uh, the, uh, the displacement of the vertex from the origin.
Uh, and again, we are doing this better and better using machine learning, for example, using the, uh, the graph neural network.
We have obtained a light rejection factor of thousands.
And so every time we see by using state of the art machine learning, we are doing much better than we expected.
And and again, by doing that, we are also training a community and young people in, uh, in, in, in things that are very useful for society.
So in conclusion, findings are exposed as complete as the standard model, but many questions remain unanswered.
Precision study of the Higgs and going beyond the Standard Model.
We require a new accelerator. The cost is significant.
I didn't mention the cost, but it's it's really large, but the physics output is superb and we will use this machine for decades.
Timelines are very challenges of student training and career because so long as the time scale,
we will need to be extremely innovative to make the next step and this will have a tremendous societal impact.
Progress in fundamental physics will be made, as we have seen today with accelerator.
And I spoke about that neutrinos like Mark and um, and uh, Paul said, uh, by doing very broad searches on from that matter,
as illustrated by Jocelyn, that also by astrophysics experiment measuring dark energy and dark matter.
And really here I want to go back to, to to dawn and to finish.
We've done what Dawn said in 2003 and have gone into this field because I feel that the, the big challenges are there.
Um, it's a very rapidly moving field, astrophysics.
It's going a lot faster ahead with time, starting a long way backwards, but it's going faster ahead in time.
And it's particle physics. So it's something that, uh, one should bear in mind for the very distant future.
And, um, actually, I don't know how many people here have read this, um, convention.
Uh, I know it's, uh, 50 years old, but it's never been abrogated.
And it states very clearly what the duties of the laboratory are was made a long list under the study of cosmic particles appears not once,
but twice and not much. So we're cleared to do it if we want to do it.
Uh, uh. So again, as you say, it was really, uh, very strongly pushing for astrophysics experiments.
Uh, thank you. And I hope that I didn't, uh, go beyond, uh, no, not too bad.