Sort of like.
So any of the three talks this morning?
Mine is going to be more of a general overview of the subject of particle physics,
but with a perspective on it that is perhaps somewhat different from the one you normally hear.
So in particle physics, you often hear about big unanswered questions.
You see these in the newspapers, in the media every now and then the fundamental particles and their interactions.
But a lot of the emphasis is on dark matter while searching for things like supersymmetry,
understanding dark energy, understanding the hierarchy of scales.
Why do we live with scales of the order of a G.V. when the fundamental scale or
unified where you unify gravity with all the other forces is a 10 to the 19 G.V.?
What's the origin of that gap? A factor of 10 to the 19?
These are big questions, important questions. But we don't know how quite to get the answers.
We know of places where we can look, but we don't know if we'll get the answers anytime in our lifetime of this century.
So meanwhile, you've got to do something.
And luckily, there are some big answerable questions, questions that it turns out we can't get answers right now.
And that's what this talk and to some extent the next two talks are going to be about.
But what these questions are, which is mostly my talk and some of the aspects about how we go about answering them.
So particle physics talks often show the particles.
We've got the folks here, we've got the leptons like the electron me on in the tau neutrinos and the force carriers,
plus the latest arrival on the block, the Higgs boson.
You've probably all heard about the Higgs boson discovery.
That's a plot that shows what people mean when they discover the Higgs boson they take for electrons, when you look at them in the centre of mass.
Add up their energies and then they plot the number of events that they get as a function of the energy.
And you see that there's a cluster of events here or with about the same energy or invariant mass more technically.
And that is the Higgs boson. That's the evidence that we have for the Higgs boson.
It's pretty strong evidence now. This plot shows more recent data than when the discovery took place.
So people often say success, the standard model is complete,
you'll hear many people particle physicists included saying that, and then the next step is, Oh dear.
And this is not just particle physicist saying this. The New York Times says it's a cloud hanging over the physics community.
So what is the standard model? Well, it's a bunch of particles, great. But.
It's worth thinking a second. What would life be like if we just had the particles?
We're made of electrons and up quarks and down quarks.
Now, if before we had with the up quarks, down quarks and electrons, they'd be flying around. We wouldn't exist.
It's the interactions between them. That make the world as it is, the strong force holds the Upwork's and uncorks together into protons,
neutrons and from their nuclei, electromagnetism holds the nuclei together with electrons.
And gives us all of molecular physics, chemistry, biology and so forth.
The interactions are what matters. And if you go to sin, you can go to there.
They have a great visitor centre. You can go to their shop. But I doubt their most famous product is a T-shirt.
This is John Ellis who wrote this out, and he even got it knitted onto a jumper for himself.
Well, somebody did it for him. This T-shirt is about the interactions, you can get it in all sizes.
My son loves it, too. Now, when you buy the T-shirt, it comes with a little card.
And that crowd does two things. The original version of the T-shirt actually had something that many people feel is a typo.
It was next to H.S. there. So the court sort of gives you the version without the tape.
They printed all the T-shirts already. And if you buy the kids ones, they don't sell as many. So the Typekit still on that one.
But what I want to concentrate on a second is this sentence here.
This equation neatly sums up our understanding of fundamental particles and forces the two together that make up the standard model.
And understanding is a very funny word. Why?
Well, is it knowledge? Is it what we think is there?
Which is it? So what I'm going to do during this talk is try to analyse this.
Might look a little bit forbidding if you expand it out with the details.
That's what it looks like.
I'm not going to go through all of this, but I'll try to give you a flavour of some of what is in this so we can think about what this T-shirt means.
Now, the first part I want to talk about is up here. Basically, what this is is the quantum formulation of Maxwell's equations.
Not just for electromagnetism, but their analogues, for the strong force and for the for the weak interactions.
Now, if there's one thing to pull out of this kind of formula and something that I will be reusing throughout the lecture.
It's trying to understand what this term means. So first of all, what is CI so indicates a firming up, for example, an electron or a coke?
What specifically the field for it. The presence of electrons excitations D.
Well, it's a derivative plus a bunch of other things. And what we're going to care about is that it contains a photon filled.
So when you multiply three times, oops, something went wrong, that button.
Well. OK, we'll get there.
So when you multiply three times, the vote on field climbs aside, what you've got is an interaction.
This is a fundamental interaction, vertex and particle physics. For example, it can be an electron coming in, going out and in the process,
it's a a photon or it can be a coke going in and it's emitted a gluon or it can be a cork and it's emitted AWB,
or which is the origin of radioactive decay.
So this term tells you there have been electron, there are electron proton interactions and all the other interactions of that kind.
Well, when people tell you and you may have heard this, the standard model has been probed and found to be successful over and over again.
What they're essentially telling you is that they've tested this. We've been testing this since the 1860s in a certain sense.
This is Maxwell's equations and many variants, many important.
It's much more than just Maxwell's equations, but the same idea of what is called a gauge interaction is at the basis of this.
And this really works. Works after high precision, the best tests go up to one part in 10 to the eight.
We have a lot of confidence in this. The part.
That I'm going to talk about the rest of this lecture, is this one?
You see a five here, five means the Higgs field, and we're going to have that coming back over and over again,
and until seven years ago, no one had ever observed any of these terms directly.
So let's start with the Higgs field. What is it? Well, the Higgs field has a potential turn, and we set at the minimum of a potential,
this potential is actually much more to it than just this one dimension.
There's four dimensions of the Higgs field, but we're going to simplify it and just look at one dimension.
It's what a minimum here in a minimum there. The very special thing about the Higgs field and.
This is a hypothesis. The very special thing about the Higgs field is that its minimum is not a zero.
The way the the potential is arranged is that at zero you go down because of that
minus sign and then you come up because the plus sign multiplying five to the fourth.
So you've got this potential at every point in space. All around us.
And all around us, we're sitting at something called the vacuum expectation value.
Which has got this value in terms of these constants.
The exact value doesn't matter, what matters is that you've got some, some non-zero value for the field.
So what does the Higgs boson? The Higgs boson is an exhortation of this field.
So this illustrates the field oscillating back and forth.
And. You can turn this round minus the glitch.
This field exists at every point in space, so the Higgs boson at a given point in space,
the Higgs boson here is this field going up and down at this point in space here.
That there is a Higgs boson is established. That's what was established in 2012 with the discovery.
That you have this particular form of the potential is a hypothesis.
There's no direct evidence of that whatsoever. We know that there's we know that there's a minimum.
We know we can produce oscillations around it, but we don't know. Whether this form here is right or wrong.
Theorists will tell you I'm a serious I should be telling you,
that's the only form you can write down in four dimensions for a scalar field a field without spin.
That's the only option. Now, that's great. But physicists job is not to listen to theorists or let me rephrase that.
It's great to listen to theorists, but you need to establish what's actually out there in nature.
What are the kinds of terms do you have in there? Well, let's take this defy.
This is the this was actually the origin of thinking about this kind of problem of a Higgs field.
When you expand it out, you get two kinds of term. You get something some bunch of constants which multiply two fields.
And whenever you see that in particle physics, that tells you there's a mass.
You multiply to two fields. That's the field going from one place to another place.
And there's something that happens in that process and it involves a mess.
That's what that constant tells you. Then there's another term which involves three fields.
Two sides in this case. Plus the Higgs. What's happened this FY?
The fire got expanded to five zero plus h.
And because of that expansion, here is the excitation of the Higgs field, and five zero is the value at rest if you like the vacuum.
So you always find a combination of five zero plus h appearing everywhere.
And this term gives you a mouse, and this term gives you an interaction,
and the special characteristic of this of the Higgs mechanism is that you always
find these two things pet an origin for mass at an associated interaction.
So this particular interaction was actually one of the interactions through which the Higgs was discovered.
So this block that I showed you here shows the Higgs decaying to a z to two sets.
So the Higgs interacting with two sets, that's how people discover the Higgs.
And that's what led to the 2013 Nobel prise for the brute Anglo Higgs mechanism.
Showing that the mass of Z related directly to the interaction with the Higgs boson established that mechanism.
That's not the only thing that's that that was that was the origin for introducing the Higgs concept, try to get masses for four force carriers.
No one had figured out how to do that consistently beforehand. But then once you had this field around.
Others came along and said, well, we can write down all the terms. This term here involves fermions.
And when you expand it, you find there's a constant multiplying of professions.
And that's a fair Myanmar's. And you find there's a constant multiplying a Higgs exhortation and two famines.
And that's an interaction between the Higgs and those two families, the Higgs boson and those two famines.
And people said, Oh, we could use this to explain, explain, maybe an inverted commas,
the masses of all the fermions we know, or at least the the quirks and the charge leptons.
Just by putting in different values for these wives, this constant arbitrary values.
We don't know where they come from, but if we stick in some values for these wise. These are the values you stick in.
We don't know what to do with neutrinos here. You'll explain the masses of all the particles.
All the all the metaphorical for the families. Now, that's a very simple idea, and it's a step towards understanding perhaps where masses come from.
We don't know whether masses of particles come from. But if this is the mechanism,
we know that what we need to do to understand it is to explain to understand the origin of these blue couplings as they're called.
The thing is, this is insane in a part, in part of hypotheses, too.
We don't actually know if this is what's going on to explain masses of particles. So what's special about that?
Well, it's not just that it generates firmly on message, but it's a very.
Unusual interaction. It's the first fundamental infraction, or apparently fundamental interaction that we see at the quantum level,
where the interaction strength is not quantised.
So if you take electromagnetism, everything is quantised in terms of the electric, the electric charge.
You have a chart of one child of two kind of a chart of one third.
But you can't have a chart of point zero three six five four three two, whatever doesn't happen.
With this, you call our interactions. You can have an arbitrary value, apparently.
That's qualitatively very different.
The first time we see something like that in a fundamental interaction, gravity is sort of like that in a loose sense.
But this is not gravity is not something we've probed at the quantum level.
So let's take a step backwards. Why do we care about matters?
Let's. There are many illustrations that I could give you, but here's one.
Let's take the cooks up, cooks and cooks. Now on Upwork has a massive of about two MTV, a down caucus, a mass of about four and a half MTV.
What's a proton? It's a two hops and one down. So let's.
Take the up and the up in the down. That's two of these lighter things the Upwork's and one heavier one.
And we take the neutron. It's an up and down on a down one lighter and two heavier.
And the result of that is that the proton is a bit lighter than the neutron.
Now you might genuinely and with good reason ask, what about those three dots?
I mean, this is silly. That's 900 and something missing here, and you're telling me about the two.
Well. The nine hundred and something here all comes from a strong force which doesn't really care about the masses of the quirks too much.
There's a little bit extra coming from associated with the QED affects the charge of voting,
but basically all of these three dots don't change the underlying picture,
which is that these masses make the proton a little bit lighter from the neutron.
Now, if a particle is lighter than another one, it's stable, so the proton is stable, the neutron is not, the neutron can decay into protons.
If it weren't for these matters, if we had no UCAR interactions, if we had no masses for the Hawks,
then you wouldn't have this pattern to the protons light of a neutron. It would be the other way around.
The neutron would be like two protons would decay into neutrons.
After a few minutes, there would be no hydrogen.
Now, if you really want to be sophisticated, you can play the game and ask, OK, but I have nuclear physics. Could I create nuclei?
And it gets a bit more subtle than maybe you can have deuterium.
But the world will be a very different place if we only had deuterium versus hydrogen.
So. This pattern of coke masses, this hypothesis that they come from the UK,
our interactions is what gives us the hydrogen atom and chemistry and biology.
So it'd be nice to know if this is true. There's one other recent example that we can give, which is for the electron.
Now the radius of an atom, the border radius basically goes one over the electron mass.
You can write it in different ways, depending on which constants you prefer.
At the end of the day, if the electron mass is proportional to the ukwa coupling the Higgs field, then this is one over the you call a company.
So this these kinds of couplings also set the size of atoms and sets the energy levels of all chemical reactions.
It's OK, be nice to know if it's true. So how do we go about that?
Well. The first generation has a low mass because these interactions with the Higgs field are very weak.
10 to the minus six. The problem is that when the interaction is very weak, it's very hard to measure.
So essentially today, no one has a clue about how to establish whether it really is interactions with
the Higgs field or responsible for the mass of this part of these particles.
But if you take the third generation, the masses are quite large, which translates to large interactions with the Higgs field.
And so there you can potentially test it.
And that's where the LHC comes in. The LHC, the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Geneva, is the machine that discovered the Higgs boson.
And it was built in order to discover the Higgs boson, amongst other things,
but it didn't just discover the Higgs boson and stop and stop it's carried on.
So what does it do? Well, it takes protons and sends them around a series of rings.
Which accelerate them to successively higher energies, let's twenty five give either.
Then up to four hundred and fifty give. And then it sends them into the big 27km ring.
Well, it's got some TV proton. Since then around this tunnel with the complete with a large of.
Crosses the border many times a second. And that there's a proton with three quarks and lots more.
But listen, we'll tell you about later. And protons come from both directions and collide.
And four big experiments called Atlas CMS and HCB and Alex.
And produce hundreds of particles in each collision.
So this happens well, it happens 40 million times a second each time there are collisions, it's actually not one collision,
but about 30, 40, 50 collisions happening at the same time, slightly lower rates that are actually being released.
And the question you might ask is, well, OK, what can we do with it? What underlying processes tell us about what's going on?
So are we going to do is we're going to look. At a very idealised version of particle collisions and pollution and Fabrizio later on,
we'll tell you a little less idealised version of particle collisions.
What we going to do is we're going to talk not about protons colliding, but about gluons colliding.
You've got gluons inside protons. You'll find out more in that. Two gluons collide and they produce.
A virtual top, a top that bursts is a top tier top quarter that bursts into existence for a tiny fraction of a second.
But and then annihilates again to produce a Higgs boson.
If the Higgs couples to the top, if the Yukawa hypothesis that the that the Higgs field is responsible for the top mass,
then there's an interaction in the top and the Higgs expectations, the.
And you expect to see that happen once for every two billion proton proton collisions.
Now you've got two billion collisions a second. So that's actually happening quite often.
That was the LHC data was consistent with that already of discovery in 2012.
So let's look at that a little more detail. You have to gluons coming in. They don't interact with the Higgs field this punchier,
but they produce talks which do interact with the Higgs field today and leave an expectation of the Higgs field.
And after a while, that creates another top there. Which then annihilate and produce two photons.
So this is the thing that happens two billion times once every two billion collisions.
And what you can do is you can look at the invariant mass of the two photons, some of their energies in the rest frame of that system.
And, well, there are lots of other processes that produce pairs of photons,
and you can plot how many events you get as a function of the energy of the inherent mass of that photon pair,
and you've got a background here from all the other events that produce them. And you have a little bump here.
And that little bump was the other evidence for the Higgs discovery. I showed you a peak from Z.Z before.
That's from the photon. And that gives quite compelling, indirect evidence that there.
That there is something happening here that is like what you expect. The difficulty is that you don't know what's happened in this doctor.
I can show you an animation of what's going on, but you don't actually see that in real life.
All you see is protons coming in. Photons coming out.
So the question is, is, can you do something that actually convinces you that it really is interacting with a top?
Well, the answer is, if you can actually produce a top that you see, not just a virtual excitation of a top power,
nothing that flits in and out of existence, but something that lasts for a while.
Well, once you produce the top, it's much more likely that you can actually produce eggs.
Very unlikely thing in the diagram I showed you a few slides ago is to actually produce the top in the first place.
But if you can actually show that you've produced a top. Then you expect to see one Higgs.
Not every two billion collisions, but every six hundred.
It's much more likely because of the strong interaction of the Higgs with the top. So what does that look like?
Well. You've got the gluon coming in, producing a top pair, which excites the Higgs field at the same time,
the top just go off now gotten to be something to be seen somewhere new detector.
So you tag the presence of the tops. And then in the events where you've tied the presence of the tops,
you again count the number of events per bin of invariant mass of the two photons and you see a peak.
And you see a peak that is at a rate that is consistent with one for every six top pairs.
That's the plot from Atlas from about a year ago. This is the same plot from CMS around the same time,
the this plot is much more readable because you see a physical cognitive impairment mass of two photons.
CMS has done a more has shown a different kind of fiscal analysis, but it contains the same message.
So this establishes this hypothesis that interactions of the Top Rock with the Higgs field.
Are responsible for the mass of the top quark to within 20 percent.
So that's one sort of one of the nine quarks and leptons we want to figure out if this is true or not.
That. The other thing you can do is look at takes the case, for example, a Higgs can decay to a tile plus or minus.
This is the third generation Lepton, and within the standard model Higgs style, you have a coupling hypothesis.
This happens for one in every 16 Higgs boson decays let out last time.
Minus times are difficult objects to play with, but they managed, and this time CMS has the slightly more compelling plot.
And you see here a peak in the mass of the Tao Plus Tao, minus that it coincides roughly with the Higgs mass.
You can't measure tiles very well, so it's not a not a super precise thing,
but we don't know of any other particles around that mass and the rate is consistent with what you'd expect.
So that tells you you've got you've established this as the origin for the tail mass.
How about the other third generation part of the B? This is about 58 percent of Higgs boson, such dictator BS, because the B is the mass,
the heaviest particle to which the Higgs boson can actually decay without violating energy conservation, essentially.
Well, this was actually one of the toughest to see of the ones that are being seen so far when people were about to turn on the U.S.,
they thought this would be impossible. In the meantime, ideas have come about.
We contributed to that. Back in 2008 about how to actually go about seeing this Higgs to be OK.
On a huge background of reproduction that don't like us.
And you see from both Atlas and CMS again, a peek, a pretty broad peek because you don't measure the mass of the system very well.
A pretty broad peak around 125 of the Higgs mass of events that are consistent with Higgs decays.
So what does this mean? Well. The Five Sigma Statistical Golden Grail,
the holy grail of particle physics observation of these three processes takes Higgs to kowtow and has to be independently by two experiments.
This is really the standard you need firmly established existence of a new kind of fundamental interaction.
The interactions are important because, first of all, because they qualitatively unlike anything we've seen before.
They're not what I called gauge interactions. They don't come with an underlying unit of charge.
And they hypothesise to be responsible for the stability of hydrogen, the size of atoms and a whole lot more.
Establishing the pattern of nuclear couplings across the four remaining set of fermions is one of the big challenges of particle physics today.
And you could ask yourself, is this any less important than actually discovering things going on in the first place?
And I would say no, because interactions are just as important as the particles, the particles without the interactions are very boring.
Another thing you could say about this is that it's a fifth force. Because the Higgs carries a force between fragments.
If you've got two top pairs, two tops coming in, they interact because they feel a strong force between because of the Higgs.
It's up to you to decide whether you prefer to talk about new interactions or new forces. But either way, it is qualitatively new.
OK, so let's look at the guy in that table of particles of fermions.
And what we've done, we what Allison seems to have done with some help from theorists is establish the newcomers here to within roughly 20 percent.
With the LHC, there's one more of these that can be done.
Which is the me. There's no evidence for this today. It's quite a rare process.
Don't you only produce millions and one one in 4000 decays roughly.
But with more data to come along, you can see this.
Trump, there's no evidence. We'll come back to that in a second. But there's we know how we could get there with the regulator and the other three,
the other four, which together account for about one in four thousand decades.
We just don't know how to actually establish whether the Higgs hypothesis that you call a hypothesis is true for this.
There's also something which has to do with the Higgs width. I'll come back to that in a second.
Well, there's lots more that you can do with the Higgs, far more than you probably would like to hear.
Let's have a brief interlude. What about the big questions? Why aren't we seeing answers?
We were promised answers. Why haven't we gotten? Well, let's talk about one in particular, which is dark matter.
Somebody a little incautious. Well, it's a challenge.
It remains a challenge. There was a lot of talk of this finding dark matter at the LHC.
Now, we suspect dark matter exists, there's very strong evidence from galaxies and how they rotate,
this is how you'd expect them to rotate without dark matter,
and the points here show how they actually rotate because many other sources of evidence for something like dark matter.
And there were compelling, theoretically elegant and compelling theories that suggested dark matter might be within reach of the LHC.
So the LHC has searched for it and has been very successful at excluding certain
scenarios of dark matter and other kinds of experiment called direct detection,
actually big tanks sitting deep underground, waiting for dark matter to come and hit and an atom or a nucleus.
I've also searched and been very successful in covering potential face space, but haven't seen anything.
But. This is one variant of dark matter, and there are many variants possible of dark matter.
This is a plot from 2013 showing all the variants of dark matter that people had in mind at the time.
This is sort of a map of what people call theory space. This here shows a plot of mass and interaction strength.
Now you can't read it. I can't read it, even though I'm standing right next to the screen.
But basically, every tick here is a factor of 10 to the three in mass.
I think or maybe even 10 to the six and the bit that the LHC is sensitive to is this little bit here.
Now, this little bit here is is in some sense, theoretically compelling, but it's not the only option.
There's a huge space over which one could search for dark matter.
Over which dog, much of my life, for that matter, dark matter might not interact anything other than gravitationally.
So you need to search for it. You want a search.
We want to find out what it is, but we have to keep in mind that this is not a problem that you will necessarily answer tomorrow or solve tomorrow.
So what do we do? Well, we carry on looking for it.
But in the meantime, we figure out what else we can do.
And, for example, amongst approved plans, the LHC will collect between 40 and 100 times more data than than was used for the plots that I showed you.
At mostly similar energy. And that's a programme called the high luminosity LFC.
One of the axes of this programme is that you collect more statistics for the things you've already observed.
For example, Higgs decay into gamma gamma. You can use gamma gamma as the the ratio of the observed rate of production of
Higgs going to gamma gamut of what you expect from theoretical predictions.
And this is a plot showing that my extrapolation of the precision you expect as a function of how many collisions are collected by the LHC.
So this was at the time, shortly after discovery.
This is what has been analysed today, roughly one investment about 10 to the 14 collisions, 100 trillion collisions.
And by the end of the LHC, it will have collected almost well, a third of a quintillion collisions.
By 2036 ish roughly. From a statistical point of view that has the potential to bring the precision down to a few percent.
A couple of one or two percent of. Why do you care about that?
Well, you've got a new interaction, a new kind of force.
You wouldn't say you've established electromagnetism if you'd only tested it within 20 percent.
You want us to go beyond that.
And the point of part of the point about all of this high luminosity, Alexie, is that it can deliver one to two percent.
Hopefully for a range of couplings with the caveat. If the theoretical interpretations can be made sufficiently accurate, let's just take one example.
This shows the expected uncertainty on a particular interaction with the bees.
Peacock's broken up into different parts the statistical part.
Some uncertainty related to the detectors and an uncertainty related to our ability to connect the underlying theory with what happens at colliders.
And in this case, this dominates almost three times larger than the other uncertainties.
And so really, being able to exploit the AFC and understand what's going on depends,
crucially on our theoretical understanding of the processes that happen at large at the Hadron Collider.
It's not the case at all for everything, for example, for the muon. It's not the theory that dominates at this stage.
It's other things. It's mainly statistics.
And this will be a very important milestone for that to see, because this be the first establishment of a second generation you call interaction.
What about beyond that? Well, people today are putting on paper plans for colliders beyond their legacy plans in China.
There are plans in Japan and there are plans in Europe at some.
There are many different kinds of flyers electron, positron, proton, proton, electron, proton.
And I'll just give you a very brief overview.
Essentially, let's start with Electrum gliders. They're a great acquisition.
They're also very clean. They can give you the charm quite nicely.
Another second generation coupling.
And the other thing is, they can tell you, does the Higgs stick to anything else, things that you can't easily detect?
They have a very powerful way of figuring out everything that the Higgs goes to goes to.
Which you can't do without close. Proton colliders, high energy proton climbers can produce huge numbers, hugely enhanced numbers of interactions,
and the one that I think is most important is the interaction of the Higgs with itself.
In a harmonic potential and harmonic well. Some people just five squared.
You have an oscillation that goes on forever. But the next potential is not just five squares, five squared plus five to the fourth.
It has high derivatives and harmony and harmonic potential. And when you have an harmonic potential modes and talk to each other so you can
go for an exhortation with one Higgs to next station with two Higgs boson.
That's illustrated here, you have gluons colliding. They produce a top infinitesimal amount of time.
Which annihilate and produces a very strong excitation of the Higgs field, which then splits into two Higgs boson.
And by measuring that.
You can figure out just how and harmonicas potential is, is it really five square percent of the force and you need a lot of exits to do that.
But you can get at a future collider, a future hadron collider. You could get up to in the five to 10 percent range.
And this is important because the Higgs potential is the keystone.
It's what holds everything else together.
It's what causes the Higgs field to have a non-zero expectation that it means that the Higgs field is non-zero everywhere around us,
which is what gives mass to particles at the end. Well,
there's a big exercise going on called the European Strategy Update for particle physics to plan within Europe what we think the priorities should be.
And actually, next week, one of the main meetings of that is going to take place in Spain.
And the kind of plans we're talking about are long 70 years.
On the other hand, the LHC programme, together with its predecessor, Collider collapse, lasted 55 years.
These are the timescales we're talking about. To get answers to some of the most fundamental questions that we have.
So to come to a close. The Hague sector is unlike anything that we've heard before in particle physics.
And much of it remains to be established and explored, and in a way,
we are remarkably fortunate that we can answer some of these questions with the collider
that we have today and with the Collider's we can envisage building in the coming decades.
Unlike Dark Matter, where we're not sure. There's many questions such as accessing Hicks.
You can be on the third generation or understanding the hicks potential.
As well as turning this from just discovering,
discovering these interactions to actually pinning them down and seeing if they're really at the five percent level,
what we expect in the meantime, the search for new physics continues,
and there is much scope here for being ingenious about how you think about searching for new physics,
what kind of experiments you do with use, the data from the big experiments and the ways you plan to use it.
The data from the big experiments in ways you hadn't planned build a little add ons to big
experiments and suddenly open up new bits of face space where you can search for things.
There's lots of ideas. The field is teeming with ideas about things to do you.
And that's something that the searchers and the Higgs and other physics colitis share in common,
which is the need to think about how we relate the underlying physics underlying
the grandjean to the observations we make of 10 to the 16 high energy collisions.
How do you make the connexion between? What you put on a T-shirt?
And what comes out of a collider that will be Lucian on February two, strokes after the break?
Thank you.