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Okay. Good afternoon. Welcome, everybody. Thank you for coming to the Cincy lecture.

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I am absolutely delighted to be able to introduce to you this afternoon Hitoshi Moriyama.

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He's flown in from Japan. He has, I think, the best title of any director of an institute that I know.

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He is the director of the Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe.

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But even more remarkably, he has a position both in Tokyo and also at Berkeley.

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And so he's a man who flies to the moon more or less every year.

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He has many accolades and awards.

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Most recent of which was his election to the membership of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

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And so it's a wonderful opportunity for me to introduce him to give the lecture on the quantum universe.

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Hitoshi Okay. Thank you, Roger. Thank you.

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It's really a great honour to be invited to give this intellectually here.

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Of course, Oxford is one of the most world premiere institute in this area of research, and so is Tokyo and Berkeley.

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So of course we are in some of this competition here. But anyway, it doesn't matter.

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So the title of my talk here is The Quantum Universe, and that is meant to be an oxymoron universe.

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It's the biggest thing we can study. And quantum has to do with tiny things like atoms and electrons and quarks.

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So what do they have to do with each other? And so that's basically the content of my talk today.

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But before getting into this, you know, there was I introduced me,

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I started actually this new institute in Japan called the Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe.

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So my friends in Berkeley was surprised that suddenly I became the director of the Institute for the Physics and Mathematics, the Universe.

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And they said they didn't like that. This is way too long.

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Let's try to shorten this by picking the beginning and the end of the title to that one.

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That sounds like a huge responsibility to me. And even more, this responsibility doesn't come with high enough authority.

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Because there's somebody at home who claims she's the voice of God.

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That's very hard to compete with.

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But anyway, so I founded this institute back in 2007 and we did trying to address some simple and very profound questions about the universe.

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And that's what we scientists actually do. We ask very simple but profound questions which any little kid might actually ask looking up the night sky.

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So looking at this beautiful night sky, you know, every child wonders, how does the universe begin?

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What is this fate way like going? What is this made of?

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And what are these laws and why do we exist in it?

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And these are very simple questions. I'm sure anybody had wondered about these questions.

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But these are questions now we can address by scientific methods.

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So this is actually incredibly exciting time because we can really answer these simple and profound questions.

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And that's what my talk is about. So, for example, this topic, the last question, where do we come from?

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And of course, this used to be the realm of religion for many millennia is also a question in philosophy.

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And more recently, like the end of the 19th century, thanks to Darwin from this country, we start asking the question in the context of biology.

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And it's not clear we are heading the right way in terms of the evolution these days.

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But anyway, so that's the scientific question now.

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And obviously to really understand where we come from, the machine we would like to have is that time machine.

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And incredibly, we do have time machine to study this question.

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And the time machines are these instruments.

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One of them are big telescopes.

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The reason why big scopes a time machine is is because if you use a big telescope, you can look really, really far away in the universe.

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And then if you look far away, light takes so many billions of years to reach us.

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You're looking back into the past. So you can literally see the path of the universe.

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That's kind of time machine. But another kind of time machine we have is something called particle accelerators.

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And these machines can create the condition how the universe was like when it got just started.

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So that's another way of looking back into the past. So we use these time machines to try to understand the question where we come from.

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So that's what I'm going to talk about. And just just flash you a couple of pictures to make this point clear.

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Let's say this is the picture of Andromeda taken with a new camera action we just completed on a telescope called Subaru Telescope.

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And this Andromeda is about 2.3 million light years away.

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So what we can see is the way Andromeda was 2.3 million years ago.

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So if this happens to be somebody living there and looking at all planet Earth, they will see us being still apes 2.3 million years ago.

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So that's how you can look back into the past if you look farther away.

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For example, this is a beautiful picture of something called the cluster of galaxies.

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So each each of these a yellow blob is a galaxy on its own.

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Again, each one of them has 100 billion stars in it, and they actually are living together.

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So that's a cluster. And this particular one is 2.1 billion light years away.

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So we're looking back into the universe when it was 2.1 billion years ago.

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So we can really look back into the past. And this is the Guinness Record.

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So this picture shows if we brought this picture up and you eventually find this little red smudge,

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and this smudge is a galaxy which is 13.3 billion light years away.

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So we're looking at the universe, how it was 13.3 billion years ago.

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And now we think that universe itself was born 13.8 billion, 13.8 billion years ago.

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So what you're looking at is the picture of a galaxy when universe was as young as 500 billion years old.

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That's a very young universe compared to our universe today.

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That's 13.8 billion years old. So this is the way you can study.

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Our universe was like at the very beginning of it. But it turns out there's a limit to this.

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If you look even farther away, 13.8 billion light years away, you still see the universe.

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But this is a wall. So what's going on here is something like this if you are looking at the sun.

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And of course, I don't want to do this because I would burn your eyes. But suppose you are looking at the sun.

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Then what are you seeing is actually the surface of the sun.

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You can really look inside the sun. And that's because sun is such a dense hot object.

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Light doesn't go through it. So only thing you can see is the surface of the sun.

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This is actually the surface of the big, bad, big band started with this huge explosion 13.8 billion years ago.

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But at the beginning, it was so dense and so hot light can go through it.

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So if you look 13.8 billion years away, you can still see this dense universe.

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You can see the big bang in a way, but you can not see the Big Bang, the core of it, because it's so hot and dense, you can see through it.

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This is the surface of the big bang. And that's the best you can do with a telescope.

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So this is the kind of wall this is the best you can see with any telescopes we can ever build and imagine.

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So this beyond this, we have to rely on something different.

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So this is the wall. And so beyond this wall, the universe was filled with this tiny elementary particles like electrons and photons.

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It was a huge, hot and dense soup of these tiny objects.

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So that's the world of quantum world. Universe was made of these tiny things.

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And because this is so dense, you can't see through it.

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Big Bang is supposed to be over there. But you can really see the core of the big bang.

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That was the picture of the surface of the Big Bang on the previous slide.

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But of course, we would like to understand what's going on before then. When the universe was 380,000 years old, that's already a very young universe.

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If you think of this 13.8 billion years to be a year, then this is like 15 minutes.

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So this was a pretty baby universe. The fact that we can see this baby very hot, dense universe today is already amazing enough.

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But to really understand the question where we come from, we have to go beyond that.

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And for that purpose, we use different kind of machine rather than telescopes.

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So this is the best you can do with telescopes. This is the big bang.

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This is you thinking about where you coming from 13.8 billion years later.

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And using the best telescope we can build. You can go see back to this this point when universe was 380,000 years old.

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But we would like to understand what's going on before then.

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And for that purpose, we use the second machine I mentioned it's called particle accelerators.

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So these machines would speed up our course, the incredible speed and energy,

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and you smash them against each other so that you can sort of recreate the big bang in the laboratory.

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What we can really do, big bang, but we can do little better. And that's how we try to do using this machine to understand what's going on there.

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For example, we can recreate the situation how universe was like when it was about only 3 minutes old, very young universe.

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Then you can smash these tiny particles called neutrons and protons against each other.

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Then if you do this experiment, you'll find that sometimes they actually stick with each other.

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And that must have also happened, the big bang, because we can do it in our own lavatory.

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And this is the way this thing called helium, which you can use in a balloon, has to be made in our universe.

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And you can also see how much of this helium had been built at the time of the Big Bang.

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And you can also observe in the sky how much of that still exists in the universe today.

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And they agree very well with each other. It's 3 to 1.

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So that's how we know the whole universe was like when it was only 3 minutes old using this new machine called particle accelerators.

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You can see beyond this wall and study how the universe was like much earlier on.

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So combining these two instruments, giant telescopes and the particle accelerators.

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I'd like to talk more about where we actually come from, where you come from.

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And that's the topic of my talk today. So, you know, I have three kids and this is a picture of my daughter on a very bad mood day.

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And she's obviously made of atoms. So we need to understand where the atoms come from.

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And atoms are made of something tiny in the middle called nuclei.

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And this nucleus is made of smaller particles called neutrons and protons.

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And we also know, learned back in the 1970s that these are also made of even smaller objects called quarks inside.

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So where do these things come from? So that's the first question we would like to talk about.

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It turns out, as I already mentioned, when the universe was only 3 minutes old, we could make hydrogen and helium.

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And these are the only things that were there at the time of this hot, dense universe when it was only a few minutes old.

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The rest of the stuff weren't there. But then you would not be here, right?

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To build your body, you need carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, iron.

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You need all kinds of elements on this period of table elements.

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Where do they come from? Well, if you use, for example, these three helium nuclei together, you hope to build up carbon to build up your body.

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But where was this done? We know that we can mimic the condition of the big man.

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Big Bang itself didn't do it. We need to do something different in something different.

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Actually, it turns out to be this star.

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So what's going on inside a star? Why does the sun shine?

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And it's actually very interesting to think of the fact that we didn't know the answer to this question until

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the beginning of the 20th century is we actually learned this fairly recently in the history of of of science.

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And that's all thanks to this guy, Mr. Albert Einstein, who came up with this famous equation,

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E equals M.C. squared, which means energy and mass are the same thing.

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And after people thought more about this equation, eventually people came up with this idea that sun is shining.

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Because of this, you bring in four protons together and they stick with each other and become this helium and speed out.

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Actually interesting object called anti-matter. That's a positron.

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And another interesting thing called a neutrino. I come back to this in a moment.

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And that actually gives away energy. And that's because if you actually put these things on a scale.

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What you started out with is heavier than what you end up with.

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And that actually doesn't sound right if you think of no collision of cars.

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It was a huge accident. Two car comes against each other. They smash against each other.

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Then you see a lot of debris is flying apart.

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But if you collect all of this debris, collect them all and weigh them together, they should weigh exactly the same amount as the two cars combined.

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Right. That that's what we know. That's what we always think. But here's something else happen.

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If you smash these things against each other, somehow, you got lighter.

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Mars disappeared. But the Mars that disappeared, thanks to this equation, turned into energy.

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So that's how the sun is making energy. It's actually shedding its own mass and creating energy.

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So as a matter of fact, as the sun is shining and giving us all this abundant light and heat, it's becoming lighter by 4 million tons every second.

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It's really setting its own meat to give us all this.

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Heaton Energy is doing this incredible thing, and, you know, we can really measure this directly.

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So how do we know this is true? Well, one idea people came up with is the following.

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So if this reaction is really happening at the core of the sun, again, we can only see the surface no matter how you look.

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So how do we know what's going on inside the sun? Well, is this by-product of this reaction called the neutrinos?

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And they are incredibly shy. They don't interact very much with pretty much anything.

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So even though the sun is such a dense hot ball, it can just go through it very easily.

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So if you can, you actually manage to see these nutrients coming from the sun.

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You can look directly at the centre of the sun and tell that this is really happening.

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Inside the sun, we will know that this is really what's going on to power up the sun.

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Can we do that? Well, I already mentioned that these are usually incredibly shy, but they are produced in a great amount.

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So as we speak, about 100 trillion neutrinos are going through your body every second.

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You might think, oh, that's crazy. We're inside a building. Right? But as I said, neutrinos can go through pretty much anything very easily.

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The entire sun, entire earth, they don't care. So this concrete is nothing for them.

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Even in the night when the sun is on the other side of the earth, they still come through through the earth.

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And this 100 trillion neutrinos are going through your body every second.

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Do any of you feel this wind of nutrients coming from the sun? Whenever I ask this question in Brooklyn, somebody always raises his hand.

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Oh, Dave does. Yeah. Welcome to the club. So this is all happening right now.

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But you don't feel that because they're incredibly shy.

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But some people actually manage to see these neutrinos.

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And this is one explosion.

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Some of the people here are also involved in and this is an experiment built as a huge water tank in underground mine in Japan.

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A name of the place is called Cardiaca. And this is a huge instrument.

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The name of the instrument is called Supercam. You can do it. And what you see here is that these little eyes and they really act like eyes.

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They see light. Each one of them is like this big.

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And what you see here is the glider students on a on a on a little rubber boat and they are on a mission.

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When you built this thing, you want to see these neutrinos are incredibly shy, so they don't interact very much.

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So you tend to get fooled by other things going on. If that water is a little dirty, you need to make this whole thing very, very clean.

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So they are on a mission to clean these little eyes, big eyes very carefully.

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Wipe it, wipe it, wipe it.

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Eventually they go around all the way back after 40 metres.

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Then what you do is to pour water into go a notch up, wipe it, wipe it, wipe it all the way back and 40 metres and then another notch up.

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It takes about six month to fill this up and just to see how big this thing is, they remove the picture from this bottom to the top of this tank.

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It's this big. So it is, for example, right?

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The neutrinos are very shy. They don't interact very much.

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But if you make a huge target, maybe once in a while, they will produce a little kick inside this water.

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And that's what they they can look for. And indeed, they managed to actually do this.

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So the burning atoms and the sun produces these neutrinos.

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I mentioned this many going through your body every second, but when they come into this water tank once in a while, they produce a little kick.

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And even though are so many of them coming from the sun, you get to see them with this huge tank of water.

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Like, only, like, ten times a day. But if you are a patient and if you collect ten inches a day patiently over five years, it's like a chemo camera.

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The exposure and open for a long time to take a picture of something really, really dark like stars.

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You can take a picture of the sun using neutrinos.

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Even though this is in pitch darkness a kilometre underground, there's absolutely no light coming into it.

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But you can see the sun. This is a picture taken using neutrinos.

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You can really see the sun from underground.

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And not only you can see the sun, what are seeing is the centre of the sun where that reaction is actually happening.

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So we know that the sun and stars actually are burning atoms.

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They bring these atoms together to build out the bigger atoms.

196
00:19:55,770 --> 00:19:59,849
That's really happening inside the stars. But.

197
00:19:59,850 --> 00:20:04,170
Okay, so this is about the sun. Do we really know that the other stars are doing the same thing?

198
00:20:04,770 --> 00:20:13,140
Well, we do. So this is actually an amazing example that you can see a explosion of a star at the end of its life.

199
00:20:13,560 --> 00:20:17,850
Even though this particular one is like 160,000 light years away.

200
00:20:19,440 --> 00:20:28,830
And this explosion also brings atoms together and produces a lot of neutrinos, much more so than our sun does.

201
00:20:29,790 --> 00:20:34,109
And the smaller explosion that actually existed before this was supercam.

202
00:20:34,110 --> 00:20:40,800
You can experiment, actually manage to see those. And that happened in February 23rd, 1987.

203
00:20:41,970 --> 00:20:48,780
And this was an incredible feat. These neutrinos took 160,000 years to get to the planet Earth.

204
00:20:49,830 --> 00:20:56,130
And because the the neutron is so shy, most of the time, the only thing you see is the noise.

205
00:20:56,370 --> 00:21:03,990
This is the noise. This is pretty much all you can see. But at one instant, there came a burst of neutrinos.

206
00:21:04,410 --> 00:21:09,090
We were it's actually only 11 of them, but it's a burst.

207
00:21:09,810 --> 00:21:16,560
And lo and behold, when people looked at the telescope and observe the sky, there was this explosion of a star.

208
00:21:17,220 --> 00:21:26,850
So neutron is came from that. And this observation led to a Nobel Prize award to the physicist Mr. Kawashima in Japan.

209
00:21:27,180 --> 00:21:29,880
And I always find this story incredibly amazing.

210
00:21:30,840 --> 00:21:36,060
You know, just a month before this discovery, they actually didn't manage to bring this noise level down.

211
00:21:36,780 --> 00:21:44,940
So if this supernova explosion happened just a month earlier, then the noise was so high that you wouldn't be able to dig this up.

212
00:21:46,080 --> 00:21:55,620
So it became really just the month before. But also a month later, because Shiva was supposed to retire the mandatory retirement.

213
00:21:57,330 --> 00:22:02,250
So there was only two month window and the story exploded,

214
00:22:02,910 --> 00:22:09,840
360 thousands before the middle of this two month window so that he could get a Nobel Prize.

215
00:22:10,260 --> 00:22:13,800
So you see, you need the incredible luck to earn a Nobel Prize.

216
00:22:15,210 --> 00:22:19,560
But we learn something from this. These stars are so far away, nobody can get to them.

217
00:22:19,890 --> 00:22:30,270
But they do the same thing our sun does. They bring atoms together, build up bigger atoms, and let the neutrinos out from this reaction.

218
00:22:31,050 --> 00:22:38,370
So this is the way we now learn that this is how we actually came to exist at the beginning of the universe.

219
00:22:38,640 --> 00:22:46,380
We can study this with particle accelerators. You can build up only up to helium, no carbon, no oxygen, no calcium, no iron.

220
00:22:47,160 --> 00:22:51,120
But the first stars got built using just hydrogen and helium.

221
00:22:51,780 --> 00:23:00,570
And while this other star burns and shines, it builds these more complex atoms at the very centre of these of these stars.

222
00:23:00,870 --> 00:23:05,130
So the stars are actually the factory or building bigger atoms.

223
00:23:06,090 --> 00:23:13,140
But if the atoms are built, but if they stay there inside the sun, you still wouldn't exist because you don't get to use them.

224
00:23:13,500 --> 00:23:19,540
You need to take them out. It's so conveniently that some of these stars actually do explode.

225
00:23:20,490 --> 00:23:24,840
So they do this factory of building heavier atoms inside a star.

226
00:23:25,140 --> 00:23:29,010
Once they explode, they spit everything out into the empty space.

227
00:23:29,880 --> 00:23:34,560
And eventually those little atoms spit out from this x one of the stars.

228
00:23:34,800 --> 00:23:38,550
You can collect them later and build the second generation of star.

229
00:23:39,450 --> 00:23:43,680
Again, inside the star, you'll feel more and more atoms. Inside it's another factory.

230
00:23:44,070 --> 00:23:49,500
In a way, they explore the game. Then you build the grandson star, the third generation.

231
00:23:50,400 --> 00:23:54,600
And it is sort of belief that our son is the grandson.

232
00:23:54,620 --> 00:24:00,420
It's the third generation of stars. So when it was already built, there was plenty of other elements in it.

233
00:24:00,780 --> 00:24:04,050
Iron, calcium and oxygen and so on.

234
00:24:04,290 --> 00:24:10,770
So that's how planet Earth already did have those elements, and that's how you could be born.

235
00:24:11,430 --> 00:24:19,470
So it's literally the case that my daughter and everybody here came from these exploding stars.

236
00:24:20,070 --> 00:24:24,150
And those explosions also led to a Nobel Prize, which is kind of convenient thing.

237
00:24:24,540 --> 00:24:28,230
So if you ask the question where you come from, you should answer.

238
00:24:28,470 --> 00:24:32,970
We are stardust. You came from stars. Of course, I don't recommend this.

239
00:24:33,270 --> 00:24:36,870
If we meet somebody for the first time, if they ask you, where do you come from?

240
00:24:37,110 --> 00:24:41,750
If you tell them you come from the stars, you know they think that you are. I wouldn't say.

241
00:24:41,760 --> 00:24:45,120
But anyway. So I don't recommend it. But this is true.

242
00:24:45,330 --> 00:24:50,900
You came from stars. Well, you know, there's one little problem with this thought that, you know,

243
00:24:50,910 --> 00:24:57,810
if the sun is keeps burning like this, it's burning hydrogen to build up helium and heavier atoms on the way.

244
00:24:58,230 --> 00:25:02,460
Eventually, our sun would also have energy crisis.

245
00:25:02,640 --> 00:25:06,360
It would run out of fuel. So what happens then?

246
00:25:06,690 --> 00:25:10,350
Then it can't make energy anymore, so it can sustain its own weight.

247
00:25:10,770 --> 00:25:14,820
So at the centre of sun we just sort of go boom, it collapses.

248
00:25:15,510 --> 00:25:21,749
And as a result, the outer part of the sun would bounce back and becomes bigger and bigger and the

249
00:25:21,750 --> 00:25:27,420
sun becomes as big as to the extent of basically swallowing up all planet earth,

250
00:25:28,410 --> 00:25:36,030
maybe not exactly swallowing it, but we get knocked down. So we get all civil so we wouldn't be able to live on this planet anymore.

251
00:25:36,330 --> 00:25:39,540
So that is supposed to happen in about four and a half billion years from now.

252
00:25:40,290 --> 00:25:47,400
So hopefully this is enough time so that we can get ready to escape a planet or to go somewhere else.

253
00:25:48,600 --> 00:25:52,499
So that's the end of our solar system. Okay.

254
00:25:52,500 --> 00:25:55,350
But we still haven't quite understood where we come from.

255
00:25:56,070 --> 00:26:04,920
I talked about this little nucleus at the centre of atoms, but we still need these electrons moving about to build atoms.

256
00:26:06,300 --> 00:26:11,490
Where do they come from? Well, these electrons actually want to go with speed of light.

257
00:26:12,000 --> 00:26:18,780
So if you want to keep them going about around the nucleus to build atoms and build up of bodies, you need to slow them down.

258
00:26:19,800 --> 00:26:24,870
How do we do that? Well, this is where something called the Higgs boson comes in.

259
00:26:25,470 --> 00:26:32,220
You may have heard of this name. It was discovered at CERN using this experiment called Large Hadron Collider three years ago.

260
00:26:32,400 --> 00:26:38,850
It was a huge coverage over the media. And this Higgs boson is the reason why you exist.

261
00:26:39,780 --> 00:26:46,410
So let's let's talk about this. So this is the machine that built at CERN at the border of Switzerland and France.

262
00:26:46,440 --> 00:26:50,220
This is the border and this is Geneva Airport.

263
00:26:50,940 --> 00:26:59,620
And they have dug this underground tunnel, which is bigger than the runways on airport circumference of 27 kilometres.

264
00:26:59,640 --> 00:27:01,080
It's a big underground tunnel.

265
00:27:01,740 --> 00:27:09,900
And inside this underground tunnel, there's this tremendous high tech instruments just lined up one after another, all the way around 27 kilometres.

266
00:27:10,230 --> 00:27:19,260
It's a huge machine. And inside this huge machine, you speed up these tiny particles, protons I talked about already,

267
00:27:19,920 --> 00:27:24,270
and you make it to an incredible energy and eventually smash them against each other.

268
00:27:24,540 --> 00:27:28,300
So that's the way we would like to create conditions of the Big Bang.

269
00:27:28,350 --> 00:27:33,260
Big Bang, even earlier than the 3 minutes I talked about.

270
00:27:33,270 --> 00:27:36,930
You want to go back even earlier to understand where things come from?

271
00:27:37,200 --> 00:27:44,220
So that's this machine called LHC or Large Hadron Collider, and that led to this discovery called the Higgs boson.

272
00:27:44,460 --> 00:27:51,360
This is some of the ways the Higgs boson had been discovered. And for us working in the field, this was an amazing moment.

273
00:27:52,000 --> 00:27:59,640
You know, this had been in the work for a long time. So it was discovered, announced on July 14, 2012.

274
00:28:00,300 --> 00:28:09,330
And a couple of people in here that actually came up with this idea that our universe is filled with these tiny particles called Higgs boson.

275
00:28:09,810 --> 00:28:13,470
It's everywhere. It's here. It's there. It's everywhere.

276
00:28:13,710 --> 00:28:21,630
It's completely frozen into empty space. And this crazy idea came out back in 1964, like 50 years ago.

277
00:28:21,870 --> 00:28:30,060
That's when this idea was proposed. And people start to think about how to actually discover this particle like 30 years ago.

278
00:28:30,900 --> 00:28:33,960
And they started to actually build this machine, like, 15 years ago.

279
00:28:34,230 --> 00:28:38,760
And only now we got to the stage of discovering this very, very important particle.

280
00:28:39,000 --> 00:28:43,090
So that was a moment of huge celebration, especially in the United States.

281
00:28:43,110 --> 00:28:46,500
I was at home in Berkeley. This is the July 4th.

282
00:28:46,680 --> 00:28:52,020
That's Independence Day, the United States. So we all decided to celebrate Higgs Dependence Day.

283
00:28:54,270 --> 00:28:56,730
And it was a huge media coverage all over the world.

284
00:28:57,540 --> 00:29:04,980
And the people here and also my colleagues in Brooklyn, Tokyo, are working together to build this again, humongous instrument.

285
00:29:05,580 --> 00:29:09,680
So when you smash these particles against each other, an incredible speed, incredible energy,

286
00:29:09,930 --> 00:29:14,640
a lot of the breeze would fly out from the collision and it would like to detect all of them.

287
00:29:15,360 --> 00:29:20,760
Then for that purpose, again, you need a big instrument like this one, and this one is called Atlas.

288
00:29:21,330 --> 00:29:25,350
And I hope you can see this little figures. This is the size of the human.

289
00:29:26,970 --> 00:29:30,720
This is huge. And it's a very complex instrument, too.

290
00:29:31,620 --> 00:29:36,150
So the name Atlas is really meant to indicate that this is a big instrument.

291
00:29:37,290 --> 00:29:44,760
And using this instrument, you would like to really see the details or what exactly was happening around at the beginning of the universe,

292
00:29:44,970 --> 00:29:48,480
when it was very dense, very hot, and a lot of energy.

293
00:29:49,910 --> 00:29:55,460
And people on this, this group called Atlas, they're working together, thousands of physicists working together from around the world.

294
00:29:55,790 --> 00:30:03,770
Now, this one one thing I really admire about them, because this kind of study is done using taxpayers money.

295
00:30:04,130 --> 00:30:09,110
They really feel strongly that we have to give what they are doing back to taxpayers.

296
00:30:09,410 --> 00:30:13,850
And they created this video even before they actually finished building the instrument.

297
00:30:14,210 --> 00:30:19,100
So this is the way you bring protons against each other. This is the incredible energy of the collision.

298
00:30:19,370 --> 00:30:26,780
A lot of things come out. Then you start to see what movie they had in mind, and they were pretty serious about this.

299
00:30:27,110 --> 00:30:31,760
Just. Just keep watching. Pretty good, huh?

300
00:30:35,350 --> 00:30:39,220
So. So this is what they built and this is the picture doing.

301
00:30:39,400 --> 00:30:47,860
They are building this humongous instrument. Again, you see a guy sitting at the centre of this, I guess this is running out of battery.

302
00:30:48,130 --> 00:30:53,530
So I try to use the cursor hoping, look, I don't know.

303
00:30:53,980 --> 00:31:02,470
But anyway, I hope you see this this person in the middle. It's not quite working.

304
00:31:05,650 --> 00:31:11,120
Uh. Sorry. So, anyway, so you see a guy in the middle, and this is still doing construction.

305
00:31:11,350 --> 00:31:16,240
So the inside is kind of empty. But this got all filled up with the high tech instruments eventually.

306
00:31:16,450 --> 00:31:20,140
And using this instrument, they actually discover the Higgs boson.

307
00:31:21,010 --> 00:31:26,229
You know, this is, you know, basically collection of metals and the wires.

308
00:31:26,230 --> 00:31:34,810
And these are, you know, high tech material. But, you know, if you look at this picture, people sort of saw some sense of beauty in it.

309
00:31:35,830 --> 00:31:41,830
So not only that this has done an incredible scientific discovery, it also made an influence in the world of art.

310
00:31:42,160 --> 00:31:47,470
For example, this is the video clip from an opera done in Valencia, Spain.

311
00:31:47,890 --> 00:31:56,080
And you can see this space that is out backlit. So there's a big influence, just not as high as but also in the world of art and music.

312
00:31:58,670 --> 00:32:02,780
So this is what they have done. Smashed protons against each other.

313
00:32:03,050 --> 00:32:09,050
And you see these two bodies flying apart from there. Then what you can see is these are two green things.

314
00:32:09,500 --> 00:32:15,530
And these green things are actually a particle of light, very high energy.

315
00:32:16,190 --> 00:32:19,700
And by looking at these things, they could tell that something interesting happened.

316
00:32:20,300 --> 00:32:26,990
So when you actually managed to create this Higgs boson, unfortunately, it actually disintegrates in an instant.

317
00:32:29,630 --> 00:32:34,310
But what it can hope to see is the debris when Higgs boson disintegrates.

318
00:32:34,670 --> 00:32:40,340
And by looking at this debris as the fly apart from each other. You can tell that something disintegrated.

319
00:32:40,940 --> 00:32:43,700
And that actually turned out to be the Higgs boson.

320
00:32:43,940 --> 00:32:51,640
So in this particular case, expose on the disintegrated into two particles of light called photons that.

321
00:32:54,230 --> 00:32:59,510
And it's really amazing that they actually managed to see this in the midst of something like this.

322
00:33:00,980 --> 00:33:07,430
Each time you collate this collection of a bag of protons against each other, you see this huge mess.

323
00:33:08,570 --> 00:33:12,560
But inside this huge mess, they managed to pick up what they were looking for.

324
00:33:13,250 --> 00:33:17,090
And they keep doing this like tens of quadrillion collisions.

325
00:33:17,750 --> 00:33:23,510
And then what you're looking for is about 100 out of them. So, you know, it's really a needle in the haystack.

326
00:33:23,750 --> 00:33:27,799
But, you know, using the modern technology, using this computer, a big data,

327
00:33:27,800 --> 00:33:32,210
you can use them to dig out these tiny, tiny signals out of this big mess.

328
00:33:33,720 --> 00:33:42,420
So what did we learn from this? Well, so we know it started out very hot and dense and something being hot like this.

329
00:33:42,420 --> 00:33:47,310
People coming up from volcano. I mean, the tiny particles of flying, that incredible speed.

330
00:33:48,610 --> 00:33:57,550
This is what it means to be hot. You have these tiny particles zooming about and that's what is hot when you go out in the summertime.

331
00:33:57,730 --> 00:34:05,170
You feel that air is very hot. It's because these tiny molecules are bumping into your face all the time and that makes you hot.

332
00:34:05,440 --> 00:34:08,830
So this is what it means to be hot. So it's such a big chaos.

333
00:34:09,880 --> 00:34:15,140
But when you cool it, for example, the vapour, if you're cooled down, eventually becomes ice.

334
00:34:15,160 --> 00:34:18,610
Right. And ice is a very orderly object.

335
00:34:18,970 --> 00:34:23,770
These tiny things are lined up very, very neatly. So there's an order to it.

336
00:34:24,700 --> 00:34:28,510
So if you stop, is something hot? That's a disorder or chaos.

337
00:34:28,840 --> 00:34:34,150
And if cooled it down, it actually creates order. And that's exactly what Higgs boson did.

338
00:34:34,750 --> 00:34:43,000
Higgs boson was flying about, zooming about very incredible speed in the chaos of the beginning of the universe right after the big bang.

339
00:34:43,570 --> 00:34:51,670
But as the universe cooled at some point. Higgs boson frozen everywhere and filled up the entire universe.

340
00:34:52,830 --> 00:34:59,460
So how cold the universe was back then? Well, it became as cold as 4 quadrillion degrees.

341
00:35:00,450 --> 00:35:05,850
But that was cold enough for the Higgs boson. Higgs boson frozen to space.

342
00:35:06,450 --> 00:35:10,950
And that's the space we live in. So what's going on then?

343
00:35:10,950 --> 00:35:17,310
Is this. So, as I said, these tiny particles called electrons want to zoom at the speed of light.

344
00:35:17,520 --> 00:35:23,700
That's what it wants to do. But it's living in this universe filled with the Higgs boson.

345
00:35:24,570 --> 00:35:28,590
So he bumps into it and he can go with the speed of light anymore.

346
00:35:28,950 --> 00:35:36,090
It slows down, and that's how it can happily move out this atomic nucleus to build up the atoms.

347
00:35:36,420 --> 00:35:40,320
And then you. So we need the Senate.

348
00:35:40,890 --> 00:35:46,320
So if the expose on that frozen in the entire space due to some reason evaporates this instance,

349
00:35:46,890 --> 00:35:53,910
then electrons start to move at the speed of light in your body also evaporate in about a billionth of a second.

350
00:35:55,140 --> 00:36:03,450
Higgs boson is what is keeping you together. It's doing this incredibly important job to create order to the universe.

351
00:36:04,950 --> 00:36:12,750
So right after discovery, I was actually called to a TV station, that broadcaster NHK, that's sort of similar to BBC in this country.

352
00:36:13,230 --> 00:36:18,630
And this is actually a prime time TV news show. And the host of the show actually asked me a very simple question.

353
00:36:19,560 --> 00:36:23,970
Okay, Mr. Moriyama, you're telling me that our universe is filled with this thing?

354
00:36:24,720 --> 00:36:29,370
I sort of get it. But if it's here, why don't we notice it?

355
00:36:30,360 --> 00:36:35,120
Why didn't we know this stuff before? And this is a tough question to answer.

356
00:36:35,900 --> 00:36:40,400
So this is the way he responded. Well, it's sort of just like the air.

357
00:36:41,240 --> 00:36:47,090
Do you feel are living inside the air? We don't we can't see it.

358
00:36:47,450 --> 00:36:51,020
We can smell it. We can touch it. We can taste it.

359
00:36:51,590 --> 00:36:54,770
How do we know that the air is around us?

360
00:36:55,610 --> 00:36:57,980
Well, of course, ancient people actually didn't know that. Right.

361
00:36:58,970 --> 00:37:05,740
And so if the only way you can tell that there's something out here, of course, we learned that in school.

362
00:37:05,750 --> 00:37:08,480
Maybe parents tell us about it. That's how we know.

363
00:37:08,750 --> 00:37:15,739
But the only way we sort of sense that something's out there and when there's a motion, if the emotion of the air,

364
00:37:15,740 --> 00:37:21,950
that's the wind and the wind actually blushes your face, then you can tell some things out there.

365
00:37:22,580 --> 00:37:25,700
But still, Asian people thought there's something called wind.

366
00:37:26,510 --> 00:37:30,170
It's very hard to tell that we are living in the air.

367
00:37:31,160 --> 00:37:34,490
So if something is always there, you take it for granted.

368
00:37:34,700 --> 00:37:38,779
It's very hard to tell that it's actually there. So he exposed.

369
00:37:38,780 --> 00:37:46,800
It's very similar. So if we can create motion and expose on, you can probably feel the wind of exposure.

370
00:37:47,660 --> 00:37:54,050
But that's very hard to do. It's really stuck together, frozen in very, very tight and rigidly in space.

371
00:37:54,320 --> 00:37:58,050
You can't really push it and produce any motion and exposure on.

372
00:37:58,640 --> 00:38:06,860
So all you can do is okay, if it's here, I take a hammer, then whack and one of them pop up.

373
00:38:08,250 --> 00:38:15,780
That's exactly what this experiment did. You bring in these high energy protons against each other and you've smashed them against each other.

374
00:38:15,960 --> 00:38:21,240
That's the hammer you whack. Empty space with this hammer.

375
00:38:22,020 --> 00:38:25,260
But space actually is an empty is filled with the Higgs boson.

376
00:38:25,470 --> 00:38:29,880
So one of them popped up, then decayed right away.

377
00:38:30,240 --> 00:38:35,280
But we managed to capture that, to breathe. So that's how we discovered the Higgs boson.

378
00:38:36,900 --> 00:38:42,000
But next question. This newscast they ask me is, okay, that kind of makes sense.

379
00:38:42,450 --> 00:38:46,500
But now we need to tell the story to the average viewers for this program.

380
00:38:46,890 --> 00:38:54,780
How do we do that? I'm going to have to think of quite a bit about this question, but in the end, I said, okay, bring in a bunch of kids.

381
00:38:56,250 --> 00:39:00,720
Like this? No. If the kids are running around, that's the chaos.

382
00:39:01,020 --> 00:39:05,460
That's the beginning of the universe. Everything was flying around, zooming around very hard.

383
00:39:05,610 --> 00:39:12,780
And that's the way it was. Was like. It's a big chaos. But then comes the magician, Mr. Higgs boson.

384
00:39:13,410 --> 00:39:21,600
And this magician casts spell on these bunch of kids, and somehow they slow down and sit at their own desk.

385
00:39:22,980 --> 00:39:27,480
This desk is the nucleus. The kids are the electrons.

386
00:39:27,840 --> 00:39:31,680
And now you'll find atoms. That's where you came from.

387
00:39:33,030 --> 00:39:36,600
But he has a little problem. So who is this Higgs boson, then?

388
00:39:36,930 --> 00:39:44,370
That brought order to the universe. We discovered it, but we still haven't seen its face.

389
00:39:45,420 --> 00:39:49,290
It's faceless. We don't quite know what this thing actually is.

390
00:39:50,310 --> 00:39:56,100
You know, we have discovered this particle. But what is it? And this is the kind of particle nobody has seen before.

391
00:39:56,400 --> 00:40:03,570
Very, very unusual. Well, it's kind of strange to think that there's one particle with no other particles of similar type.

392
00:40:03,870 --> 00:40:08,310
But this particle, too, is the most important thing in the universe. That doesn't sound right.

393
00:40:08,760 --> 00:40:14,760
Maybe it got siblings. And why exactly is part of that frozen in to empty space?

394
00:40:15,270 --> 00:40:19,320
We don't know that either. So there are still a lot of mysteries about this particle.

395
00:40:20,070 --> 00:40:26,220
And what I mean by not having a face is that is this every particle we have seen before,

396
00:40:26,430 --> 00:40:32,040
electrons photon the particle flight or the other particles we have seen before are like, plop.

397
00:40:32,220 --> 00:40:36,240
It's spinning forever. It's a total clock. It's spinning forever.

398
00:40:37,410 --> 00:40:39,780
All of the particles we have seen before are doing it.

399
00:40:40,800 --> 00:40:46,530
And if particles spinning, depending on which way it spins, you know, it kind of looks different from each other.

400
00:40:46,950 --> 00:40:52,710
So you've got a face, you can recognise it. But this particle is totally faceless.

401
00:40:53,220 --> 00:40:57,270
It's not spinning. No matter how you look at it, it looks exactly the same.

402
00:40:58,200 --> 00:41:03,460
That's what I meant. Doesn't have a face. And that's a very, very unusual thing.

403
00:41:03,640 --> 00:41:12,520
So that's why I actually said it's a spooky particle and because it's such a strange thing to think about a particle without a face.

404
00:41:13,120 --> 00:41:20,290
When I first learned about this idea, you know, ranging 50 years ago when I was back in grad school, I couldn't believe it at all.

405
00:41:21,070 --> 00:41:30,040
No way such a particle could never exist. So I ended up writing scientific papers about Higgs less theories.

406
00:41:31,330 --> 00:41:37,389
But now it's discovered. You know, clearly I was wrong and pretending I'm a proper Japanese.

407
00:41:37,390 --> 00:41:40,690
I go to conferences and apologise like this.

408
00:41:41,680 --> 00:41:45,890
Okay. What's wrong? But it really brings up these questions.

409
00:41:45,910 --> 00:41:49,090
Is it the only one? Is this such a special part? Because that's the only one.

410
00:41:49,330 --> 00:41:54,640
Does he have siblings and relatives? Or maybe it's some spending an extra dimensional space?

411
00:41:55,210 --> 00:41:58,270
There is actually a serious theory called extra dimensions.

412
00:41:58,690 --> 00:42:02,920
Our universe has three dimensions up, down, from back, left, right.

413
00:42:05,020 --> 00:42:09,580
But some people think that they're actually tiny up dimensions everywhere in the universe.

414
00:42:10,180 --> 00:42:14,140
We don't get to see. So maybe the six balls on is actually spinning.

415
00:42:14,950 --> 00:42:19,060
But spinning in this extra dimension, we don't see that. You can tell it's spinning.

416
00:42:19,840 --> 00:42:26,920
No, that's a that's a serious possibility. Well, maybe it's wrong to think that this is an elementary particle like electron.

417
00:42:27,070 --> 00:42:36,250
Maybe it's actually a build-up of some smaller things. And why did sparkle freeze into this empty space when universe was incredibly hot?

418
00:42:37,660 --> 00:42:40,930
Well, you know, we run at least something that this thing exists.

419
00:42:41,320 --> 00:42:48,250
And to learn what this thing actually is, you need to look at it from many different dimensions and angles.

420
00:42:48,580 --> 00:42:50,620
And that's what astronomers have been very good at.

421
00:42:50,920 --> 00:42:58,300
Once you discovered an object, you use a different kind of light to study it using different kind of instruments.

422
00:42:58,690 --> 00:43:04,960
And eventually you learn that this funny shaped object is actually a result of the merger of two galaxies.

423
00:43:05,410 --> 00:43:12,130
And that's why it looks like a sort of like a Valentine picture of hot in the middle and the swing coming up with like a ribbon.

424
00:43:12,460 --> 00:43:18,100
So if you look at it with many different methods, maybe you can tell better what's really going on.

425
00:43:19,330 --> 00:43:21,460
So that's one of the things I would really love to do.

426
00:43:21,820 --> 00:43:27,910
So at the Large Hadron Collider, you are smashing these bags, of course, scoring protons against each other.

427
00:43:28,960 --> 00:43:32,830
And so this worked incredibly well. We did discover the Higgs boson that way.

428
00:43:33,280 --> 00:43:40,210
But, you know, if you're colliding a bag of stuff against each other, it's like smashing a cherry pie against cherry pie.

429
00:43:41,620 --> 00:43:52,210
What you really want to study is to see how cherry picked and another cherry picked would collide against each other into something interesting.

430
00:43:52,990 --> 00:43:58,060
And but if you actually do this, of course, cherry pits may still meet with each other,

431
00:43:58,510 --> 00:44:03,040
but you get this incredible goo coming out from just smashing cherry pies.

432
00:44:04,510 --> 00:44:14,920
That's why the pixel look very complicated. But if you managed to bring cherry pits against severe pits, then you don't have this goo extra goo.

433
00:44:15,220 --> 00:44:17,680
So you get to see much more clearly what's going on. Right.

434
00:44:18,370 --> 00:44:22,210
But you can immediately see, you know, throwing the cherry pie is kind of easy thing to do.

435
00:44:22,720 --> 00:44:26,710
And make them meet against each other is also kind of easy or relatively speaking.

436
00:44:27,940 --> 00:44:31,420
But throwing sometimes something that is tiny is already hard enough.

437
00:44:31,900 --> 00:44:37,420
Making the meat is also very hard. So indeed, this is technologically much more challenging.

438
00:44:37,660 --> 00:44:44,770
In this case. This cherry pit is an elementary particle electron and its anti-matter counterpart called positron.

439
00:44:45,520 --> 00:44:48,610
But, you know, people have learned that maybe we can actually do this.

440
00:44:49,150 --> 00:44:53,020
And that is a project called ALS, the International Linear Collider.

441
00:44:53,410 --> 00:45:01,060
So you bring in these electrons against each other after sort of waiting them over a long section of about 15 kilometres.

442
00:45:01,360 --> 00:45:12,820
And this, a yellow thing is called cryo modules. They've got actually cooled down to only like a and down to that -270 degrees.

443
00:45:13,210 --> 00:45:18,040
So it's a very, very cold object. And inside this cold object, you actually bring the electrons in.

444
00:45:18,280 --> 00:45:21,880
And what you do is basically like a surface. You're big in wave.

445
00:45:22,000 --> 00:45:27,850
It's called wave. You wave and you put electron on top of the wave that get a little kick all the time from the behind,

446
00:45:28,060 --> 00:45:31,900
it gets accelerated and eventually becomes course the speed of light.

447
00:45:32,260 --> 00:45:36,030
And you bring them over in the middle and apply them from both direction.

448
00:45:36,160 --> 00:45:40,060
You focus them down to incredibly small size and smash them against each other.

449
00:45:40,360 --> 00:45:44,410
Then you see a collision without this incredible goo.

450
00:45:45,130 --> 00:45:51,100
You see much more clearly what's going on. So that's actually something we hope to do in the future.

451
00:45:52,870 --> 00:45:58,720
Okay. But this is not the end of the story. Okay. We learned atoms were made thanks to stars and Higgs boson.

452
00:45:58,960 --> 00:46:02,710
That's great, but we still need stars.

453
00:46:03,520 --> 00:46:09,580
Where do the stars come from? If you don't answer this question, you still haven't understood where you come from.

454
00:46:11,440 --> 00:46:18,160
And at this stage, when you ask the question, how were the stars made, there is still a big mystery.

455
00:46:18,910 --> 00:46:24,940
And that big mystery is called dark matter. We don't still have an answer to this question.

456
00:46:26,020 --> 00:46:31,540
So if you take pictures with telescopes, sometimes you'll find really, really cute objects like this one.

457
00:46:32,020 --> 00:46:38,260
Isn't this cute? You see two eyes, nose, mouth, sort of the the frame of the piece.

458
00:46:40,450 --> 00:46:46,300
And this thing is so cute. I got me this this sort of size called Cheshire Cat.

459
00:46:46,660 --> 00:46:52,690
Like in Alice in Wonderland. And what do you see here is something very, very strange.

460
00:46:53,500 --> 00:46:57,550
What you see is something really, really stretched out, right? Something very long.

461
00:46:58,810 --> 00:47:01,900
There can't be such a thing. It can't be a galaxy.

462
00:47:02,110 --> 00:47:06,100
What is this? There can't be such a funny shape galaxy in the universe.

463
00:47:07,060 --> 00:47:11,080
It turns out that this is actually dark matter.

464
00:47:11,090 --> 00:47:18,040
Playing tricks on you. There are many similar things you can also see in the cluster of galaxies.

465
00:47:18,060 --> 00:47:23,490
This is the picture I have shown you at the beginning of my talk. Again, you see something that's really, really stretched out.

466
00:47:24,300 --> 00:47:27,930
And I it's too bad that my point is not working.

467
00:47:28,260 --> 00:47:35,250
I hope you can see something really, really stretched out over here like this.

468
00:47:35,850 --> 00:47:40,140
Another one over there like that. You see another one up here, too?

469
00:47:40,170 --> 00:47:47,310
It's very long. So these things are actually also something that dark matter played tricks on us.

470
00:47:48,330 --> 00:47:52,800
They are supposed to be irregularly shaped galaxy. Just a round object.

471
00:47:53,730 --> 00:47:57,540
But dark matter playing tricks on them. They look really, really stretched out.

472
00:47:58,740 --> 00:48:01,350
So how does that work? Well, it works like this.

473
00:48:01,950 --> 00:48:08,070
When you have the collection of dark matter, the gravity is very strong because there's so much dark matter out there.

474
00:48:09,340 --> 00:48:12,690
And when the gravity is strong, gravity, of course, pulls stuff.

475
00:48:13,620 --> 00:48:19,530
So if there is this dark matter here, if there's another galaxy behind it,

476
00:48:20,160 --> 00:48:27,300
the light coming from that galaxy actually falls because the gravity pulls, it doesn't go straight.

477
00:48:28,670 --> 00:48:32,900
So dark matter then acts like a lens.

478
00:48:33,470 --> 00:48:40,340
That's the trick document is playing on you. So this faraway galaxy, the light comes this way.

479
00:48:40,610 --> 00:48:49,010
And on its way, light bends. So it's like a lens. And once it does that, the image of this faraway galaxy gets totally stretched out.

480
00:48:50,000 --> 00:48:53,480
And that's something you can actually simulate using computers.

481
00:48:53,930 --> 00:48:57,110
So all of these faraway galaxies have this regular shape round.

482
00:48:58,010 --> 00:49:07,190
But here's a lot of dark matter. And if these galaxies flow behind this dark matter, then the light from those galaxies get bent.

483
00:49:07,880 --> 00:49:15,590
And then it looks like it's really, really stretched out. But as it passes behind it completely, it comes back to the original shape.

484
00:49:15,980 --> 00:49:23,090
So the shape itself has never been affected, but it's just a little trick played by dark matter in front of them.

485
00:49:24,430 --> 00:49:27,820
But this is great. You know, we don't know what the stock camera is, actually.

486
00:49:28,570 --> 00:49:33,550
But if they can play tricks on you, then you can tell where the tricksters are.

487
00:49:34,390 --> 00:49:41,560
So using this, you can actually image dark matter, even though it's absolutely invisible in telescopes.

488
00:49:42,790 --> 00:49:49,149
So this is the kind of picture you can take using modern telescopes and forget about these these bright objects.

489
00:49:49,150 --> 00:49:52,580
They are nearby stars. We only interested in your faraway galaxies here.

490
00:49:52,960 --> 00:50:01,480
And these little dots are galaxies. But using one telescope, you can really tell its shape, even though they are billions of light years away.

491
00:50:02,110 --> 00:50:09,640
And then you find that they are also stretched out. So they are tricks played on this on you.

492
00:50:10,000 --> 00:50:17,350
Then you can tell where the trick stars are. So even in this picture in telescope, you have no signs of dark matter whatsoever.

493
00:50:17,800 --> 00:50:27,830
You can tell that they are actually right here. With modern technology, you can create maps of this dark matter, very mysterious object.

494
00:50:28,010 --> 00:50:33,290
You can't really see with any form of light, but you can tell where they are.

495
00:50:33,550 --> 00:50:36,230
And again, people here are working on this as well.

496
00:50:37,100 --> 00:50:43,160
So at my institute, this model here at the college is a professor who is actually a great master in creating these maps.

497
00:50:43,430 --> 00:50:47,780
And you can also he see his assistant, a very important person.

498
00:50:49,280 --> 00:50:58,130
This way we learn something very striking. We talked about atoms and where the atoms came from, and that's what we are made of.

499
00:50:59,030 --> 00:51:02,690
But atoms is a tiny minority in the universe.

500
00:51:03,530 --> 00:51:10,430
More than 80% of of the matter in the universe is actually this dark matter.

501
00:51:11,150 --> 00:51:14,830
We don't know what it is. We are totally outnumbered.

502
00:51:15,280 --> 00:51:24,640
So this is what universe is actually made of. And the most striking picture, because of the tricks by dark matter is this one.

503
00:51:25,150 --> 00:51:29,980
So this looks like a beautiful picture of the cluster of galaxies 4 billion light years away.

504
00:51:30,520 --> 00:51:35,890
And when I saw this picture for the first time, you know, I wish that I could be there as this looks like such a beautiful place.

505
00:51:36,280 --> 00:51:43,420
But I regretted that I was happy that I'm not there because something incredibly ugly happened.

506
00:51:45,220 --> 00:51:50,530
So what's shown in this picture in pink is ordinary gas, mostly hydrogen.

507
00:51:50,920 --> 00:51:58,030
But it got heated up so much that it lights up with X-ray very hot gas and used hot gas.

508
00:51:58,480 --> 00:52:03,880
Here's another hot gas. What's painted in blue is the tricksters.

509
00:52:04,390 --> 00:52:07,540
We know dark matter is there because they play tricks on you.

510
00:52:08,200 --> 00:52:16,150
So here's dark matter. Yes. Also dark matter. Now, this pair of dark matter and gas is one cluster of galaxies.

511
00:52:16,840 --> 00:52:21,310
This pair of dark matter and gas is another cluster of galaxies.

512
00:52:23,080 --> 00:52:28,000
But one thing is strange about this. The picture is that dark matter and gas are not together.

513
00:52:28,750 --> 00:52:32,350
It shouldn't be that way because dark matter has so much gravity.

514
00:52:32,620 --> 00:52:40,090
It pulls everything in. They're supposed to be together. So the reason why they are separated like this one is something ugly happened.

515
00:52:40,450 --> 00:52:50,680
Namely that this cluster of galaxies and another cluster of galaxies collided at an incredible speed of 4500 kilometres per second.

516
00:52:52,450 --> 00:53:00,910
Once it lost that this happens. So each cluster is basically a collection of dark matter with a little bit of gas sprinkled in.

517
00:53:01,360 --> 00:53:05,380
When they collide, the gas would collide against each other. They get heated up.

518
00:53:05,680 --> 00:53:11,650
There's a friction. They slow down. But the argument just keeps moving on as if nothing has happened.

519
00:53:12,250 --> 00:53:16,540
And that's how they got separated. And thus, you can understand this picture.

520
00:53:17,500 --> 00:53:20,260
So what do you learn from this cold bullet cluster?

521
00:53:20,620 --> 00:53:27,670
Is that the dark matter went through the other one like a bullet and didn't seem to have any affected at all.

522
00:53:27,850 --> 00:53:32,380
So dark matter is like a little ghost muscle, like neutrinos.

523
00:53:32,620 --> 00:53:36,730
They are incredibly high. Don't seem to interact at all with the rest of us.

524
00:53:37,000 --> 00:53:41,660
So it is really a spooky object. Hmm.

525
00:53:42,020 --> 00:53:49,430
But this is also a very important object because dark matter is a man without dark matter.

526
00:53:49,820 --> 00:53:57,410
We would not have been born. What this is showing is the computer simulation, how the universe changed from the beginning to now.

527
00:53:57,920 --> 00:54:01,100
So at the beginning there was a little then spots of dark matter.

528
00:54:01,970 --> 00:54:09,000
And if there's a dense spot that would pull more stuff in there and becomes denser and then gravity becomes even stronger,

529
00:54:09,000 --> 00:54:16,430
I suppose most of it becomes even more dense. And then you create this contrast between dense spots and empty spots.

530
00:54:17,420 --> 00:54:21,920
And it is ten spots. There's so much dark matter, so much gravity pulls in.

531
00:54:21,920 --> 00:54:25,070
The ordinary gas and gas would scatter against each other.

532
00:54:25,280 --> 00:54:29,090
Maybe slight cools down and eventually form stars and galaxies.

533
00:54:29,600 --> 00:54:38,030
That's how we were born. But in a computer, you can simulate a hypothetical wrong universe that doesn't have dark matter.

534
00:54:39,020 --> 00:54:45,560
Then, you know, even though there may be some tiny variation in atoms, gravity is not strong enough.

535
00:54:46,130 --> 00:54:50,360
13.8 periods later, there's still no ten spots.

536
00:54:50,990 --> 00:54:55,640
Empty spots, no contrast. No stars, no galaxies, no us.

537
00:54:56,700 --> 00:55:01,140
So without dark matter, there wouldn't be any stars and there wouldn't be any us.

538
00:55:01,350 --> 00:55:10,820
So dark matter is really our mom. And this story, this is the picture of a Nobel laureate, George Smoot, my colleague in Berkeley.

539
00:55:11,120 --> 00:55:16,670
And when he got Nobel Prize. University administration asked him to do something interesting.

540
00:55:17,120 --> 00:55:23,749
And this is what he did. And so when they said we wanted to create a new bang with you guys, you know what I said?

541
00:55:23,750 --> 00:55:32,510
No way. I want to be in Somalia two or three days a year to do this before the second day.

542
00:55:32,660 --> 00:55:41,239
So the idea is everything in the early years was back together, very densely made up of an infinite number of people.

543
00:55:41,240 --> 00:55:47,000
So we just that is what we got. And then everything stretched and everything got bigger.

544
00:55:47,360 --> 00:55:49,460
And the further away or the faster you go.

545
00:55:49,790 --> 00:55:56,300
So we didn't want to start the beginning with everybody tax debts and just run around and play like a rabbit.

546
00:55:59,380 --> 00:56:07,270
Everybody is worried. They're running very fast, moving faster until people get inside and there's a little bit of irregular motion.

547
00:56:07,460 --> 00:56:24,610
So. What happens is you're going to form a little less together in five Six Flags, and that will be three people waving goodbye.

548
00:56:25,560 --> 00:56:32,580
And then slowly as you move out of the Liverpool Galaxy, which are round one people.

549
00:56:33,420 --> 00:56:38,020
So now there is a brass section that will go to.

550
00:56:38,640 --> 00:56:44,780
They make a really spectacular flutter about this very big one like early.

551
00:56:46,520 --> 00:57:01,630
So they really don't have to go down so fast that you get to make way for a to get away and you get a is about this whole.

552
00:57:10,490 --> 00:57:17,420
This is how you were born. But you have to remember, 80% of people here are dark matter.

553
00:57:17,930 --> 00:57:23,120
You don't see them in Georgetown with himself. It's a centre of a milky Way galaxy, apparently.

554
00:57:23,480 --> 00:57:28,880
So he's actually a black hole as heavy as 4 million times our sun.

555
00:57:29,510 --> 00:57:33,440
I get you don't get to see it. So Universe is full of these invisible things.

556
00:57:34,310 --> 00:57:39,410
But what exactly is this dark matter? It's all Mom. We would like to meet her and thank her.

557
00:57:40,580 --> 00:57:44,000
But we still haven't done that yet. At least we have an idea.

558
00:57:44,450 --> 00:57:47,510
So it's sort of like monster version of neutrinos.

559
00:57:47,900 --> 00:57:51,290
They are so shy they can pass through the entire earth very easily.

560
00:57:51,470 --> 00:57:55,730
We don't get to feel them. And they got the name called Wimps.

561
00:57:56,270 --> 00:58:00,380
And Wimp stands for weakly interacting massive particle.

562
00:58:01,250 --> 00:58:07,070
This is probably a stable, tiny, tiny particles, elementary particles born in the Big Bang itself.

563
00:58:07,820 --> 00:58:11,990
And pretty much all of them have disappeared by now, but some of them are still out there.

564
00:58:12,320 --> 00:58:19,190
And that's the dark matter. At least that's the idea. But once you have this idea, you know, that sounds familiar, right?

565
00:58:19,670 --> 00:58:24,160
We managed to capture neutrinos. What have we done?

566
00:58:24,700 --> 00:58:31,680
Go underground. Go to a quiet place. And the reason is that if you're on the surface, it's like in Manhattan or London.

567
00:58:31,870 --> 00:58:35,380
It's so noisy. You don't get to hear anything very subtle.

568
00:58:35,770 --> 00:58:40,570
You need to go somewhere quiet. And a quiet place is indeed underground.

569
00:58:41,170 --> 00:58:46,450
I used to walk underground myself. It actually looks something like this together with my family.

570
00:58:46,810 --> 00:58:48,940
So it's a dark spot, but nonetheless,

571
00:58:48,940 --> 00:58:57,820
you can build that game the instruments and try to hope that maybe once in a while Dogmatic sneaks in underground and produce a little kick.

572
00:58:58,820 --> 00:59:06,890
Which you wouldn't miss. You hope so. And one places people here also work in this laboratory called Snow Lab in Canada.

573
00:59:07,100 --> 00:59:15,470
You go underground and build again, instruments like this one and hoping for a dark matter to produce a little kick once in a while.

574
00:59:16,100 --> 00:59:19,910
Well, I told you that the neutrinos you may see, say ten of them a day.

575
00:59:20,570 --> 00:59:25,370
But in the case of dark matter, maybe you see two of them a year.

576
00:59:26,360 --> 00:59:29,810
You have to be even more patient. But that's what people are trying to do.

577
00:59:30,110 --> 00:59:35,360
And even Stephen Hawking visited this place, another where you might actually find dark matter.

578
00:59:35,420 --> 00:59:42,890
It's make them if big man made them, maybe we can make them, too, by using these giant particle accelerators.

579
00:59:43,670 --> 00:59:47,780
So these are things both going on and you're looking for something like this.

580
00:59:48,410 --> 00:59:51,800
This is a sign that dark matter has to be made in these experiments.

581
00:59:52,310 --> 00:59:55,820
And by combining what you actually have learned from telescopes,

582
00:59:55,940 --> 01:00:03,380
you can map out where dark matter is and you can go underground trying to see if dark matter produced a little kick once in a while.

583
01:00:03,740 --> 01:00:09,290
Well, maybe you can make them using giant accelerators. We hope to understand what document actually is.

584
01:00:09,590 --> 01:00:11,090
We'll get to thank eventually.

585
01:00:11,510 --> 01:00:19,040
But in addition, not only learning what Dogma is actually about, we also learn about the universe when The Dark Knight is born.

586
01:00:19,670 --> 01:00:25,070
That's when the universe was only like a 10th of a billionth of a second old.

587
01:00:26,070 --> 01:00:31,080
We get all the way back to where they started using dark matter and expose on.

588
01:00:31,440 --> 01:00:37,860
That's how we tried to approach this question. Where we come from, how this universe got started, and what it's made of.

589
01:00:39,680 --> 01:00:47,540
And I have to jump ahead and talk a bit. But one strange thing, which is also a very important subject we are studying right now,

590
01:00:47,990 --> 01:00:52,460
and that has to do not at the beginning of the universe, but the fate of the universe.

591
01:00:52,670 --> 01:00:57,590
Then I finish up. So I told you the universe was getting bigger.

592
01:00:57,620 --> 01:01:02,570
It started with a big fan. It's getting bigger and bigger. And that is still sounds like a just incredible thing.

593
01:01:02,990 --> 01:01:05,990
But according to Einstein, it just, again, gravity.

594
01:01:06,500 --> 01:01:14,990
It's basically like standing on a surface of the earth, holding a ball in my hand and then throw the ball like this upward.

595
01:01:16,010 --> 01:01:20,610
Initial thrust is the big bang. That was this huge explosion.

596
01:01:21,050 --> 01:01:25,970
The way the ball keeps going upwards corresponds to how the universe expands over time.

597
01:01:27,140 --> 01:01:34,760
And if you think about it, if I follow a ball upwards, then eventually would slow down, stop and come back down and hits the ground.

598
01:01:35,510 --> 01:01:40,640
So we used to think that universe started with the Big Bang, stopped expanding for a while,

599
01:01:40,790 --> 01:01:46,040
but eventually stops, come back down and eventually hits the ground.

600
01:01:46,070 --> 01:01:53,820
They go. And universe and what's called Big Crunch Universe ends in a big crunch.

601
01:01:53,840 --> 01:01:57,100
We used to think that way. But again, it's science.

602
01:01:57,110 --> 01:02:00,170
We would like to make sure that is the case by doing observation.

603
01:02:00,380 --> 01:02:09,230
Again, principle is very simple. You measure how the universe is expanding nearby, and then you can tell the universe is expanding.

604
01:02:09,950 --> 01:02:15,800
How fast it is is expanding very recently. If you look far away again, you look back into the past.

605
01:02:16,250 --> 01:02:23,720
If you measure how quickly this is expanding far away, you can tell how it was expanding long time ago, and you can compare that.

606
01:02:25,070 --> 01:02:28,640
Does it really slow down, as we thought, according to Einstein.

607
01:02:29,360 --> 01:02:33,630
But people discovered it's actually speeding up. It's crazy.

608
01:02:34,500 --> 01:02:39,300
Something is pushing. Gravity only pulls, but something is pushing.

609
01:02:40,270 --> 01:02:48,159
And he may actually go even crazier that if the universe gets faster and faster at some point, it may become infinitely faster.

610
01:02:48,160 --> 01:02:51,730
Some point the universe gets infinite, ripped apart and ends there.

611
01:02:52,300 --> 01:02:59,650
And that possibility is called the big rip. And, you know, we don't know this is the case, but that's something we would like to study, too.

612
01:03:00,790 --> 01:03:05,170
So I told you really strange things about today. So we have these atoms.

613
01:03:05,380 --> 01:03:10,990
They they actually do make up only like 4% of the universe. And they are inside this box called the universe.

614
01:03:11,500 --> 01:03:17,560
When you leave us with some twice as big box is eight times bigger and atoms thin out eight times thinner.

615
01:03:18,790 --> 01:03:24,640
Dark matter is about 23% of the universe. We still don't know what it is, but it's matter.

616
01:03:24,970 --> 01:03:31,210
So if the universe becomes twice as big, the universe is eight times bigger, then it becomes thinner eight times.

617
01:03:32,350 --> 01:03:35,830
But this dark energy we call that's pushing the universe,

618
01:03:36,040 --> 01:03:42,610
making the universe faster and faster and ripping it apart is actually even 73% of the universe.

619
01:03:43,360 --> 01:03:49,720
And as the universe becomes bigger, it looks like it doesn't thin out, becomes bigger and bigger.

620
01:03:50,380 --> 01:03:54,010
That's how it keeps pushing. The universe becomes faster and faster.

621
01:03:54,310 --> 01:03:59,920
It looks really crazy. And this is the key on the fate of the universe.

622
01:04:00,220 --> 01:04:08,740
We'd like to know its nature better. When the box becomes eight times bigger, does eight energy become precisely eight times bigger?

623
01:04:08,920 --> 01:04:13,630
Well, maybe seven times. Then it would eventually slow down, or maybe nine times bigger.

624
01:04:13,930 --> 01:04:22,150
Then we're heading to this big rip. So we would like to study this question again using telescope, observing faraway galaxies,

625
01:04:22,270 --> 01:04:24,940
and making sure that we actually do a very precise measurements.

626
01:04:25,510 --> 01:04:34,090
Unfortunately, the process I'm leading still is lacking funds, so I created a promotional video to solicit donations.

627
01:04:34,300 --> 01:04:37,900
I going to pass out pass later on. So here's the promotion video.

628
01:04:40,780 --> 01:04:50,170
So we need to study these far away galaxies to understand how the universe began, thanks to dark matter and with heading to thanks to dark energy.

629
01:04:50,860 --> 01:04:54,790
And we also would like to understand how our own Milky Way galaxy had been made.

630
01:04:55,000 --> 01:05:02,440
Why do we exist? And so we need to study light coming from these galaxy, billions of light years away.

631
01:05:02,890 --> 01:05:10,000
And it's incredible to think that that light particles that travel billions of years all the time eventually finds our galaxy,

632
01:05:10,120 --> 01:05:14,750
finds us for the first time, and finds the planet Earth, a big island of Hawaii.

633
01:05:14,770 --> 01:05:21,850
That's where we have this big telescope possible. And those particles of light get into this telescope, bounces back by the mirror.

634
01:05:22,120 --> 01:05:31,210
And you have these robotically controlled fibres that actually captures these light that gets eventually fit another system called spectrograph.

635
01:05:31,450 --> 01:05:36,100
And there you can see a detail of what the colour of this individual light is.

636
01:05:36,400 --> 01:05:39,730
And that's the way we would like to understand where we are going.

637
01:05:40,570 --> 01:05:46,540
Dark energy is ripping the universe apart, but somehow it is actually determining the fate of the universe.

638
01:05:46,900 --> 01:05:49,900
And by knowing better and better about what exactly is doing,

639
01:05:50,080 --> 01:05:56,560
we hope to understand if there is an end to the universe, what is the fate of the universe?

640
01:05:56,920 --> 01:06:00,280
So clearly you can see this instrument rocks.

641
01:06:03,040 --> 01:06:11,440
So this is the end of my story. And I initially prepared this talk for the visual particles and feels that's an entity in American physical society.

642
01:06:11,650 --> 01:06:15,250
And I told you already that what physicists, astronomers,

643
01:06:15,250 --> 01:06:21,100
science in general would like to do is to really try to answer these simple questions by little kids.

644
01:06:21,490 --> 01:06:24,910
How did the universe begin? What is fate? What is made off?

645
01:06:25,300 --> 01:06:28,150
What are its fundamental laws? And where do we come from?

646
01:06:28,450 --> 01:06:33,730
And I talked a lot about this problem, but you can also see all of these questions are very much interrelated.

647
01:06:34,000 --> 01:06:41,470
And hopefully, after doing these observations and experiments, we make progress to win this fight.

648
01:06:42,070 --> 01:06:43,000
Thanks for your attention.