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All right. So I'm really happy to to start this Friday's colloquium and really happy to

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also welcome shop on shop at apartheid sorry mispronounced shop on has really

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great and long history of achievements and contribution to accelerate the

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science as you of course know now shop owner is visiting professor in Oxford,

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but through his career he was working at CERN and he was contributing to develop a collection called In the Work in these Nobel laureates,

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Vandermeer and Rubins. And he was working in in the US when he was developing various ideas for superb factory development.

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The various ideas and the feedback then bawtry after didn't believe them first and many, many other things.

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And today Chopin is going to talk about parallel will be my guest so keep your

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people tell us so please you spend to the avenue to yes it was our effort.

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Okay. Right to sleep.

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Girl. Yeah. You hear me? Right.

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Right. This past weekend. Competitive fighting over there.

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Thank you very much for for the introduction, Andre.

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So I want to, first of all, thank you. Very bad optics. I have to go this here.

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First of all, let me thank the Oxford Mathematics, Physical and Life Sciences Division for giving me this long term visiting appointment at Oxford.

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I want to thank John Wheeler. Hopefully he will show up and have my talk with the head of the physics department.

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Ian Gipsy Particle Physics and of course, Andre, my colleague from John Adams.

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I always forget giving credit to people who actually informed me of institutional information from various places.

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So before I forget it, at the end of my talk,

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I wanted to just to try to see our friends around the world have given me information about what's going on in their labs.

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So I would just say a little bit about beings and why it is such a powerful instrument for

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science in terms of it carries energy and packs information and directs it the way we want it.

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To talk a little bit about that mentioned the connection of acceleration and radiation

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and the intricate fashion and periodicity of structures in that connection.

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Particle physics explores the energy aspect of these beams very effectively,

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whereas photon sciences and neutron sciences and all other things that actually exploit the information content of it quite, quite effectively.

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Talk a little bit about superconductivity, which is beginning to be more and more important for our field.

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I give you a little movie of how to the free electron.

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There's a work generates coherence out of randomness.

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You know, pretty much the entropy increases by design.

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And if I wrote equations, that would be too complicated. So I have a little movie to show you.

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And then I talk about why we pay a lot of attention to energetic beings and how to store energy.

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We have not been very good in our field on how to make very good beams,

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meaning ordered beam that can store a lot of good information, very cold, coherent, degenerate beam.

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If you can do that, you can actually save a lot of money by having a compact system that does not require very large infrastructure.

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And so at the end of my 40 year career, I'm focusing more on how can we produce much colder beams than more energetic means.

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Okay, so if you look at the dictionary, sorry, I'm in Oxford, but I have to give an American dictionary here.

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If you look at the you see the definition of a beam, all kinds of definitions, including bodily definitions.

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Exactly, says a ray of particles.

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Fewer particles are binary like x rays.

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And actually, most of the time these guys are producing accelerators.

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So what I really talk about Beam basically talking about directed flow of energy and information.

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And this energy can be carried by particles, charged particles, photons, light, and it can have different constituents in a sort of inside it.

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And because it can also paint the internal degrees of freedom of this beam differently,

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it also carries you can embed information in and I saw that you have this and you can direct it.

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Then it becomes a tool. And of course, tools have been we are humans, we have been using sticks and stones and tools.

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So this gentleman said many,

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many years ago how good an instrument is the not intensely advanced knowledge of much of the application of a new instrument so beams

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under control situation under human control can be exploited to give to probe various things and hence the diversity of beams use.

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Okay, now the energy of the beams is simple.

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You can either count the electromagnetic energy storing the beams of light beam, or you can count number of particles.

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They are momenta and stuff and add up and you get some kind of stored energy.

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And if you look at details into the internal degrees of freedom on the beam, it has a certain amount of information.

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And of course, particle physics uses the quantum subatomic information, but it has a classical information content.

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The statistical mechanically, you can define an entropy of a beam of some distribution in its phase speed,

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and you can actually mathematically define this object, which is the information content in the beam.

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And we have not been able to use that part, which is what I talk about later today.

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If you look at it, just light beam and it's just to be provocative.

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Either like beam being shown for the Livermore Valley in California looks very benign, but the inside is a very complicated phase based structure.

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And we've come to a particle beam. Which you are directing and focusing.

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If you look in the details of this General Dynamics, you are confining the beam under nonlinear forces that are very many linear

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and nonlinear resonances that make the internal motion extremely complicated,

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she lamented. And sometimes it goes unstable, sometimes it becomes stable.

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And these are actually the continual problems that particle accelerator designers are

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struggling with when the design language machines now come back to particle physics.

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And also particle physics, of course, uses energy, brute force collide particles of opposite energy,

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and you generate fireball and you can produce various quantum numbers coming out of the general energy ball.

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And typically that's the aspect that we have used very well so far.

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And if you look at after the history, this kind of a collider,

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we try to answer all kinds of questions by generating untainted energy in the centre of mass,

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which is free, which is just to crystallise into very many manifestations of the particle zoo.

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And so there are many, many questions we have.

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And actually all of these nearly all of these require either extremely high energy accelerators like we talk in our TV class, particle colliders now,

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or very high intensity accelerators like proton machines that producing neutrinos that

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you could do very precise determination of the of the parameters of of those particles.

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And historically, I have to tell you that starting from where I was pedigreed in Berkeley for one metre all the way to there,

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you're talking about 100 kilometre colliders. We have a 27 kilometre collider.

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We just discovered the Higgs was on a couple of years ago.

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So this is where we have come. All this distance is getting bigger and bigger and larger and larger, of course.

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And if you look at the comparison of this, it's a cyclotron 1930s and 80 years later we have 27 more energy density,

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five larger that actually scales with more favourably.

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The cost doesn't that I'm not going to talk about the cost, but of course this has discovered something for us, right?

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So we know that we have together with cosmology,

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I have to say that all the time I'm here is not just particle accelerators, cosmologist astrophysicists,

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together with them, going back in time to the beginnings when the big bang core gluon soup are beginning to crystallise into ordinary matter.

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There's still a lot of mystery here. We are still not deep into it.

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It barely comes close to inflationary scenario.

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They do not know where the dimensions disappeared.

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Matter seems to be at a dark sector to matter. There seem to be an invisible type of energy for dark energy and all of that.

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So after all these hard work, the ordinary matter, hydraulic matter,

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the matter that is our stuff is made up of stars, the sun, the galaxies and interstellar matter.

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That's only 4% of the universe. But the accelerators are given the handle and continue to give a handle on those 4%.

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So this was a couple of years achievement last two years and actually to the future.

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Now people are talking about very, very large accelerator, 100 TV, proton and proton and the Geneva site.

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To do this, you need very strong electromagnetic in a magnetic field for 15 to 20 Tesla.

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And this is where I was telling my friends at Maxwell and Neutron fight because it's

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not enough to discover or invent a new superconductor that give you a very high field.

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You also have to have a mechanical structure that can sustain the Lorentz forces that comes out, that wants to break it apart.

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Right? So that's one axis. The other axis is actually producing superconducting electro magnetic traps are cavities

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that have travelling waves or standing wave that can go through these fractures,

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which can accelerate charged particles very, very efficiently at reasonably high gradient of tiny deforming 40 megawatt parameter.

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So these are the two large high energy activities that are on the horizon.

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None of them are done. These people are designing. It is a very mature situation, but costs and scales are prohibitive.

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I'm not so sure about the reality of international linear collider.

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This BP 100 TV beginning to be thought about and and in any case,

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it is so big it probably would be an international affair, not just a European facility.

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Now back home, where I am now, in Fermilab, another axis which is now.

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Is the neutrinos and neutrinos. They're very ill understood objects like Kabuki, they change the character of the travel.

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There's a ambiguity about the masses and mixing of different types of neutrinos.

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So there is, again, high energy and high intensity accelerators at Fermilab directing the produce neutrinos

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from the proton complex very far like 800 miles to the underground laboratory.

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And so the idea is to make a deep underground nutrient statement, which is supported by a very high intensity accelerator from that.

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And that is the neutrino frontier that's driven by accelerators.

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In parallel, there is an effort in Japan where you get the neutrinos combination of the active neutrinos and also high current proton machines.

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Okay. So of course, this collaboration is a life particle physics at Oxford is a large group and so a very, very large collaboration.

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And naturally, you lose your identity in a big team unless you have discovered something very quickly and very visibly.

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So these are very large experiments. Okay, now I want to do tiny little bits that every time you have an accelerator you also have a radiator.

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And you see that because if you look at going very far right, you know, you see beautiful radiation coming out of the cannibalised.

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It's actually charged particles being going around in motions in very strong electromagnetic field in the nebulae.

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And they seem to turn radiation in in the earth.

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In a lab frame, you see a little butterfly and actually you can see a diffraction pattern of the ring.

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You see carefully your periodic structure there. And every time you want to accelerate a charged particle,

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you have to make sure that that particle is also allowed to radiate into the same mode that you

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want to use to accelerate if is forbidden for the charged particle do to radiate into a structure,

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you can never use that structure to accelerate, and that's the fundamental things about it.

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So this connection is also problematic because all the problems of these high energy

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colliders come from this beautiful radiation that you get out of our particles.

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I mean, you can harness that radiation like in light sources.

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People do it. But in the collision, it causes problems because it's a very intense radiation.

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And so most of the R&D on these very high energy colliders is naturally on the magnets,

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which are bending these particles to very sharp magnetic fields.

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And they have to be tolerant. The vacuum has to be tolerant of this high radiation and the radiofrequency cavity has

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to supply the energy that you are losing into this extremely high radiative and ground.

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For most of the research, for these high energy colliders,

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either the magnets or the cavities or the environment of the beam radiation system, you have stability and control of the situation.

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Yeah. So if you look at, for example, these colliders I just talked about,

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you have a lot of research on new types of materials that can produce 16 Tesla magnetic field,

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electromagnetic and electromechanical design or you look at RF cavity that can support very high electromagnetic field,

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an exploding field in niobium efficiency of transfer of energy and so on.

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So for this is completely engineering and technology driven focus.

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And then of course you have to look into the dynamical aspects of charged particles being that has to experience all these forces.

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So whether it is a large ring like LHC or a linear accelerator or some of these plasma accelerators people are considering today.

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We are just trying to produce periodic structures that can actually allow it to radiate and at the same time accelerate.

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And if we look at it, if we just were not concerned with intensity, just with single particle, if we want to go to very, very high energies,

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of course, as you go down in size, your frequencies of structures go very high and they can then support very high electromagnetic field.

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And so people are going from large gigahertz type structures to smaller and smaller

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structures and eventually plasma where the wavelength is micron type wavelength in a medium.

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And and so this is the way the high gradient acceleration part is going as a single particle is concerned.

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You still probably cannot support a very high current in this type of accelerators.

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Okay. Now, let me just the main thesis of my talk is that we have not learned much about how to harness the intrinsic order of the beam,

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which is very important, and actually synchrotron radiation.

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People are actually using it very effectively, but still not as effectively as we could offer them probably.

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So I gave it to examples. One of the very large linear superconducting not being constructed at Stanford in California,

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we have X-ray free electron laser and I don't know what is a daisy again, very long 14, 15, giga volt.

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You get that from the linear accelerator being built in Hamburg and these are actually based on superconductivity,

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the key element of it and this mechanism of how do you generate order motion out of totally random thermal b are you coax order out of randomness?

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And these are the two tricks that are at the bit of the at the foundation of the field.

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So let me take a little bit of detail now into the internal degrees of freedom order of the beam.

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So I told you that there is this order and you can paint it in a way.

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And this order is actually very dynamic quantity and is constantly is very restless being in the in the face of the beam now.

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And if you think about it, long time ago in the 1830s, this gentleman, Frenchman,

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thought of internal motion as a very smooth, slow guys, leaving the inflow of a fluid in space.

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He did not like very many disturbances and he doesn't like a smooth flow.

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And so if you do not have any losses, it's a not a dissipative system, not much friction,

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then everything should be smooth and continuous and you have so-called nouvelle theorem that you can deform it gently,

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but you cannot really squeeze it expanded. You did it in 1837.

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Next year he corrected himself, saying, Oh, that's not true. If you have non-conservative dissipative force and then you can treat rock.

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Now, 50 years later, this gentleman Poincaré to him first space.

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You do not have a flows and stuff. It was a totally geometric structure, all kinds of fixed points and unstable fixed points apparatuses.

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You have elliptical fixed point, hyperbolic fixed point,

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and you are studying the intrinsic randomness of the dynamics coming from very small uncertainties

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in the initial conditions of the particles will lead to in a finite length of time,

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totally unpredictable trajectories. And that's the kind of randomness intrinsic because you cannot make initial conditions infinitely knowable.

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And so he did. In a way, these are nonlinear dynamical systems which are kind of unstable because you cannot control the initial conditions that.

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Well, and then came Mr. Random, who had the good fortune to work with, who actually looked at phase space,

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very hybrid electrical engineer engineering may very, very grainy and lumpy.

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It had a flow in it. It also has a lot of empty space.

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And I can invent an electronic Maxwell's demon, which can look into the holes in the phase space and compact inside the phase space by itself.

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And he introduced an electronic Maxwell's demon that could shrink the face of the beam by this electronic thing,

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which makes it appears like he was violated. You are actually changing the controversial law of evil, and that's not true.

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Actually, this was predicted by this Chinese scholar. He was saying that, you know, if you if you consider a real which is poked,

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you have to make a hole in the middle to make it useful because all the spokes have to come in the middle in a circle that makes it go.

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If you do not have the hole, it is useless. Just to have substance without void is not useful for faith.

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Space is extremely useful because you have granularity and fluctuations.

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It is not completely dense and full. You cannot do anything with it.

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So there are just fluctuations and if you have a way to measure it, you can then make something out of it.

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And that was the whole idea about this. So the more compact you find this faith space is, of course, the more order there is.

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The entropy goes up and you have to do something. You have to take heat from the system deposited elsewhere and cool down the beam.

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And this is where the problem comes in, because the charged particle beings have to start somewhere,

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either from a gun, from a cathode where you simply heat up the surface.

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And the thermodynamic for work function of the metal is a potential barrier that the charge has declined.

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And that's because it comes out of the metal into the baggage, which is a potential energy, which immediately translates into kinetic energy.

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So it is very restless, you know, the temperature. Similarly, when you have for the cathode semiconductor surface, you shine light again.

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The atoms are band gaps and the electrons are to climb.

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The bandgap out of the semiconductor is an advantage. But yes, I climbed uphill and all I can be free for.

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You had all that restlessness in it.

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So typically I'm not very proud to say this today charged particle beam that from being as hot as the surface of the sun,

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the thousands of degrees, heart and nothing does.

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And if you could fairly make them hundred Kelvin or one Kelvin ordered being called electron beam, things could be different.

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All right. So now after that day, let me just tell you now, how does the guy, the Stanford and Humble,

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trying to coax order out of a very random restless electron beam.

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It take the many, many kilometres to do it expensive technique because the beams are crappy to start with and not good enough to start.

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So here, I don't want to insult anybody's intelligence. I show you a little thing about superconductivity.

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You all know about it. I know it's in physics here, but if it invented 100 years, more than a hundred years ago,

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when this gentleman discovered mercury loses a lot of resistance at a certain temperature, and that was a part of the working activity law.

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We utilise this in cavities in two ways.

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One, if you just have a cavity wall trap energy, if this cavity is not ordinary metal like copper or aluminium, the energy started back and forth.

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It heats up the wall and then you have to stop because it gets too hot.

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It's even getting it will get red to stop.

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You have to stop. So you have to repulsed operation.

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And we try to pack as much energy into this process.

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And in the past when you have to do it, it means there are issues, the pulsed energy and that's not easily controllable.

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If you go to superconducting because you have lots of resistance,

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energy stored can start rattling for for microscopically long enough time that you can fill a large number of batons with small intensity.

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They can control it and do it much more precise in the control of the beam.

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And that's where the superconductivity comes from and is useful as well for today's accelerators.

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Okay, okay. So let's see how it works.

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So we are showing a movie where you have a laser beam coming into a four into a metal for two cathode electrons are coming out and that's

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where all the badness starts because the electrons are very hot and immediately captured by the accelerator and taken to very high energies.

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And then you try to coax order out of it instead of writing Maxwell's equations and stuff.

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I'm going to show you a movie and please don't be insulted.

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This is niobium, which is superconducting at two degree kelvin, which can hold a lot of energy inside.

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And you build them with special purpose, very precise manufacturing tolerances.

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You build a large number of this cavity, the projectors surround them,

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so it's cryogenically isolated and you collect a whole number of them and make an entire module.

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And this module is called the Cradle Module. And typically one of these RF modules gives you 100, 200, 300 megawatt of energy.

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And so that's the Crown module. Yeah. And May.

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Many of these to get to high energy. 100, 200, 300, 400.

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And so on. Are you have to inject the particle somewhere.

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Here is your surface light beam comes in photoelectric effect or in this is where the battery that

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you injecting a bunch of particles which are being focussed and accelerated by this structure.

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Now whatever you do with this beam, eventually it cannot be any better than what it was born with.

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We are good at messing it up. It is not so easy to cool it in just a length of 2 to 3 kilometres to make it better so it simply can get only worse.

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So if you start with good enough beam, that is one thing.

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But if you start with such a hard beam, you can only do so much with it.

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And that is that the basis of why our activities are so expensive today and they are costly

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because we have to do a lot to them to keep them ordered and simple and still be useful.

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So you get it, be very familiar, do something with it, right?

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And so what these guys do in the Freedom Collider community is that they take these charges that are coming up and,

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you know, a charge is nothing but trap light, the virtual light trapped in it.

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And if you manage to shake it hard enough by magnetic field, that light would peel off from the charge.

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And in 1940, before QED, while Discovery was called Virtual, why is Dr. Williams quanta anomaly?

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You call it. So that's what they tried to do. And in the process of shaking it,

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you have to generate some kind of order in the beam every time you shake a

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particle because alpha a fine structure constant in this one number one over 137.

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So you have to kind of shake it 137 times to get one photon out.

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How quickly you shake it tells you what the colour of the light that you get, how hard you shake.

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It will tell you the intensity of the light that you will get.

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And it is a hard process.

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And here after when you do it sufficient number of times, initially one or two or three particles of light is purely non-classical.

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You cannot define the electromagnetic field. Coming from just one or two photons is very difficult.

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But once you have gathered a macroscopic number of 10,000, 2000, 10,000,

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it creates a electromagnetic field pattern which react from a charged particles in bunches which give them competitive fire,

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which then enhances that emission and that emission and bunches of particles even more.

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It becomes a positive feedback loop which grows and grows and grows and saturates.

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So the equations are complicated, but let me just show you the movie.

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So here you see magnetic device where you have north and south poles.

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And from a distance you see this I got from my friend from Daisy Head who are building their field.

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You see this electron beam coming and being shaken madly so you can shake up the light out

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of this and you see light travels faster than charged particle with the charged particles.

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Current speed cannot beat speed of light. This is a plume of light in front of you grow, grow, grows dry.

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And when all the light is out, way to take it out.

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If you have the right now, if you look in slow motion inside the dynamics of the beam, you see that this is guy slowly oscillating.

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Every now and then you get a little light particle, which is you will see that would be a little step.

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This is all electrons. Pretty soon there be one or two or three light particles that go.

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This is hardly doing anything. But when you have large number of them, they create an electromagnetic field which bunches the particles.

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You see now these creations in the beam which generates more light, a bunch of them even more and more light is a positive feedback.

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And then the light becomes ordered by this self amplified noise it saturates and then

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extracted because there's nothing more to get from this charged particle anymore.

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So you actually start it all with a very random beam terminal at a temperature of thousand degrees Kelvin or more.

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And you shook it and shook it and shook it and let the light coming from the seed noise schottky noise from the beam.

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You let it interact with the beam in a clever way through a bunch of the beam and slowly brings order into the very, very hot electrons.

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So this is a mechanism of self amplified spontaneous emission, right?

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And that is the basis of the if you are at Slack, Stanford and at Humboldt in Germany, okay.

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By this alone, it takes kilometres. We accelerate and it takes long on generators to coax this order out of the wind.

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It's an expensive proposition. And can we do better?

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Can we actually tame a particle beam just like dim light be light beams, lasers compare.

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Can you do a particle beam as an effort and the reward of what?

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If you could do it? If really? Very nicely. All right, so now I'll give you some numbers.

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The temperature scale, you know that people are doing atomic physics experiments.

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The atoms are kept in traps and lasers, and they get very, very cold temperatures on a single molecule or single atom.

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So they hardly call it a temperature molecule when nano kelvin, three degree never comes in.

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And there is no fundamental limit to how cold you can get a single atom.

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It's a big object. And yet we have not been able to produce a single free charge,

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a proton or the electron or any other charge to be that cool and to be extremely difficult and mean.

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And most of the reason why, as soon as you disturb is charged particles, it emits some kind of radiation which a neutral particle does not.

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And the best you can do is to resolve the charge at the same wavelength that the charge emits light, and you can't do any better.

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And that's one of the problems with it.

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So if you look at a typical if there are any after a physicist, if you want the density and temperature, they just line I drew,

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which is when the collecting energy is more than the internal potential energy of the Coulomb below this line are very dense,

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degenerate, strongly coupled plasmas.

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And above this line, they're all weakly being is sitting here very tenuous, very dilute and extremely hot.

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It is just not a very impressive object in this diagram.

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Our goal is if we are to pull this guy down this direction, get it colder and get it denser below this line, and then you have a degenerate being.

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But then quantum mechanics begins to interfere. I'll tell you about that.

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Okay. So how do we. Okay, so just just for the sake of an exercise, if instead of the thought that hot beam,

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if a similar to the one degree Kelvin beam and very few particles tend to the 6 million charges.

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It's not that big a number rather short balls,

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but you have a very cold beam and you see just with a laser or with some kind of a terahertz source and you get just a 6.5 of electron beam,

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you do not need a 18 GB electron beam. You already get K.V. X-rays because again,

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length is very short and you can actually get a tabletop coherent X-ray if you if the beam could be made this small.

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Okay. So that's that's the attraction of it. And we have to learn how to do this.

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And we have not put enough R&D effort into that direction in our field.

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So I think that's for state of the art.

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You put a lot of particles and do light into the 11 nano coulomb of charge.

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Everything is okay.

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But this number, which is the temperature of the beam, has to be reduced by 100,000 and that has to get much, much colder electron beam.

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And if you look at it carefully, the light that you get is just a mapping from the particle beam and vice versa.

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So in the fundamental moment, the Gaussian beam, you are collapsing.

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It, it diverges, it refracts. Similarly, a particle beam can be squeezed and you go from the you can map one to the other.

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The whole idea is to map the faceplate of the tube as tightly as you can so that there is no inefficiency between the two.

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And this is where I want to show you a little bit of a concept of coherence.

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If you look at a charged particle, beam is rather big. And if we deal with microwaves, which are rather big, also gigahertz type, centimetre scale.

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And if you look at a laser beam, which is much smaller, and if inside the charged particle beam,

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there are many, many little, little volumes of coherent information that is generated by the light beam.

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Okay. So you actually have a mismatch between the intrinsic coherence volume of a particle beam and a light.

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And this is where most of the loss is taking place in terms of getting order out of chaos or randomness.

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Okay. So people can do mathematical, very fancy statistical mechanics of this.

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Define degeneracy parameter. You define fundamental phase space of the particle being under control is the best you can do in terms of

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diffraction of over matter wave that you can resolve and you can see how many of these cells are inside.

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So you can define it typically in nanometres.

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A 30 nanometre type of a charge particle source.

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You can think of it as a millimetre source with a micro radius divergence.

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You know, things like that that have a temperature quite small and it gives you a quite coherent being.

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So this degeneracy parameter is quite small. And so if I give you some numbers inside of it, you'll see if you look at light, which is a spin,

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one particle in a high power laser lasers, you have another for light, for example, you have a large number of photons inside of pulse.

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And so it's a very classical light, very coherent. On the other hand, if you take blackbody radiation, it's very incoherent, very fluctuating light.

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And we need quantum mechanics to describe it in between.

329
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In the diamond light source, for example, we are sort of like a hybrid beam, which is partly coherent, partly incoherent and so on.

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Knowing that that light into an electron is charged from your own system.

331
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Yeah, the best you can do if you are not very social being, they don't like to sit together.

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They're not to share their napkins. I'll let the other two different coloured napkins been up and down.

333
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Okay. You can sit. Otherwise you have to sit at a different table so they don't like that.

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They are not very degenerate by nature.

335
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Best you can do with two typical electrons.

336
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Follow gum for a third to have ten -11 degeneracy.

337
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But I want to go to 20 minus six. We have to limit a little bit of order out of this Fermi Gas system.

338
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So these are the typical numbers that that you talk about. Yeah.

339
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So what is the best one can do?

340
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And again, without giving you the mathematics, you can actually write down the best you can do with this with an electron beam,

341
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which is given in terms of the fundamental number like charge of the electron speed of light,

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quantum wavelength of the particle, and this degeneracy parameter.

343
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And then a little number, which is a voltage of the potential that these charges are to go over.

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Now, this has to be very, very small. Otherwise you do not get a very degenerate beam.

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And if you look at the state of the art, most of them are very hard beams,

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except you are hitting the quantum limit only when you go to special types of surfaces like nanotubes,

347
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field emission, carbon nanotubes, metallic tips and maybe plasmonic cathode together to go to the quantum limit for the ultra v the critical number.

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So you do not want it to be the work function of the metal. You do not want it to be a quantum world you want to tunnel through.

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And so the tunnelling is provided by the field emission Nanostructured Photocatalyst okay.

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So you can either make a very finely structured cathode,

351
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but you fail to distort the potential so that charged in the quantum mechanical tunnel salt and return inside it does

352
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not feel the weight of the baggage really never have to climb anything and simply tunnel through the very cold still.

353
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Or you have to think very clever way of doing plasma physics.

354
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You have to take a beam which is not coming from a metal, is not tunnelling, but it is an atom where the electrons are a very high quantum number.

355
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So the kinetic and potential energy cancels out and they are almost ionised.

356
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So they are pretty much in the close to the continuum and these are called atoms and they make a little cathode in a plasma,

357
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which is a red box state, a little hole, and they extract the electrons out of the plasma, another degenerate electron beam.

358
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They're very complicated technologies to do these things, but that's why we have to go to make very clear from beams.

359
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So there's some work being done actually around the world.

360
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I mean, we are doing some in the States, did some work in Cambridge, did some work in Eindhoven.

361
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Philips is interested in very cold cathode, not for our applications, but for flat panel display.

362
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Graphene is a new substance, so people are exploring graphene, so nanotubes are graphene sheets anyway wrapped up.

363
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We know how to produce these things and some people are working on plasmonic catalysts and stuff.

364
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And actually there is hope that with a lot more advancement in materials science,

365
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probably one can get a cold enough cathode to go down to 110 degree cousin electron beam temperature.

366
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So the today's best candidates are these cold field emitters coming from nanotubes.

367
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But nobody has explored the plasmonic cathodes yet, which would actually give you a much better order in the technology side.

368
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So of course mathematics is important. You have to design this and then the whole subject of computational.

369
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Nanotechnology at our does really folks at the and this Andrew maybe they're they should be working on this issue

370
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of how to generate special materials with very good filtration properties and a lot of computation goes into it.

371
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You cannot just take by trial and error. And so this is a very interesting field.

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So I think in order to make progress in particle accelerators, we make very, very cold beings.

373
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We have to embrace these nanostructures and try to attack it at the source and not try to cool the beam onto it produced very badly.

374
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Okay. What is the ultimate limit?

375
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Even if we are a single electron, let's say you got know just a single electron can make a single electron have a zero temperature, huh.

376
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So probably not because you can look a single electron and you try to focus it.

377
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We want to make it come to sudden focus. We use a perfect lens, but if it has a little temperature, little divergence,

378
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then you have some kind of a spherical aberration is dependent on the momentum,

379
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so you have some kind of romantic aberration and then of course material defects, quantum mechanically.

380
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So ideally you get a root mean square has the resolution of this electron beam and if you do this, you get actually some minimum,

381
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minimum achievable quantum mechanical, limited temperature or resolution of the electron beam, but not quite.

382
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You do not quite reach that limit, mainly because as soon as you try to bring it down to that resolution, you start to emit radiation.

383
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And finally you find out if you do the thinking right and the calculation right there,

384
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the fundamental volume of the electron limited to the wavelength of light that it emits.

385
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And you can never stop the charged particle not emitting radiation.

386
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It's always emitting radiation or photon short remnant alone.

387
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If anything long of that, you don't know where the electron is. If everything short of, then you can probably get very short dimensions.

388
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Okay, so this is the whole problem that we are talking about, very, very cold electrons, very, very few particles of light.

389
00:42:40,470 --> 00:42:51,450
And I said that the alpha being a small number, even if you have 100 photons in the sample, 100 electrons in the sample, which is very, very cold.

390
00:42:51,780 --> 00:42:58,560
You're talking about one particle of light and one particle alloy, which is always there from the amplifier.

391
00:42:58,860 --> 00:43:11,069
So the quantum optics of light, even though your your charge to be an electron is classical, you know, the classical order.

392
00:43:11,070 --> 00:43:13,620
But when you map it into a photon field,

393
00:43:13,830 --> 00:43:20,610
it becomes quantum mechanical by just very nature are dealing with very small number of photons which are always fluctuating.

394
00:43:21,120 --> 00:43:29,970
So this aspect of charged particles, we have a lot of I'm just trying to point out point out to you, okay, if you could actually do this,

395
00:43:31,530 --> 00:43:38,999
you can actually see you can see this light in this little pulse of light and you can actually play around with these pulses.

396
00:43:39,000 --> 00:43:45,230
You can begin to have colliding pulses of wave functions of just light field from from charged particles.

397
00:43:45,240 --> 00:43:48,420
You can see quantum mechanical wavefunction collapse. You know,

398
00:43:48,420 --> 00:43:52,440
people are doing atomic physics experiments where the shine very short pulse

399
00:43:52,440 --> 00:44:01,140
of X-rays and they do not ionised atom incoherently like 1 to 3 electrons.

400
00:44:01,260 --> 00:44:04,260
You know, they actually excite the entire electron cloud,

401
00:44:04,800 --> 00:44:11,700
which is correlated with quantum mechanically in the field of nucleus, but they try to peel off from the nucleus coherently.

402
00:44:12,110 --> 00:44:19,590
The square observation you try to do the same thing with the charged particle, try to separate the light field from the charge.

403
00:44:19,890 --> 00:44:21,480
And in the most difficult experiment,

404
00:44:23,280 --> 00:44:29,549
the charge gives out light to charge has no identity and a charge so you can do all these fundamental experiments.

405
00:44:29,550 --> 00:44:34,709
It's very, very cold electron means that has not been possible so far.

406
00:44:34,710 --> 00:44:44,970
So some small fraction of the electrical beginning to look into these problems that that forget about bound systems of atoms and molecules

407
00:44:45,270 --> 00:44:52,140
can really understand the quantum entanglement and this entanglement of a single charge emitting radiation in the electromagnetic field.

408
00:44:54,210 --> 00:45:03,860
Okay. And I just want to wrap up because it's getting late so you can then devise all kinds of interesting experiments with classical systems,

409
00:45:03,870 --> 00:45:09,449
and you can collide lights with particles, you can collide multiple pulses of light with particles.

410
00:45:09,450 --> 00:45:11,550
And see, I'm just it's just a cartoon to show you.

411
00:45:11,940 --> 00:45:18,310
Compact laboratories can set up their own input in a university and have multiple physicists and stuff.

412
00:45:18,360 --> 00:45:28,560
Academic studies. No one can one can design colliding pulses of quantum mechanical single electron colliding with a single pulse of light.

413
00:45:28,920 --> 00:45:32,640
Coming from another electron and so on. Control experiments.

414
00:45:33,030 --> 00:45:39,390
One needs to have a very compact trap for a single charge particle, which we are trying to build at Fermilab, actually.

415
00:45:39,810 --> 00:45:43,860
So just to stimulate your interest in the subject.

416
00:45:44,400 --> 00:45:50,790
Okay. Let me just go on here that if you could and I have been thinking about this for quite some time,

417
00:45:51,150 --> 00:46:00,870
if you could have very cold electrons, you actually do not need x rays or light to interrogate the engine of life, which is protein.

418
00:46:01,290 --> 00:46:07,470
You can actually interrogate and initiate some kind of coiling in a single strand of protein molecule,

419
00:46:08,250 --> 00:46:10,559
which when you pull it apart is about a metre long,

420
00:46:10,560 --> 00:46:17,160
but quickly you go down into a coil state and in the process it goes through several configuration changes.

421
00:46:17,160 --> 00:46:21,809
You can actually send very special pulses of light. Single electron, double electron.

422
00:46:21,810 --> 00:46:28,720
And the radiation that comes with it and actually can probe the correlation in this trend as a function of time.

423
00:46:28,770 --> 00:46:37,290
After all, folding is nothing but a correlation of this string at different times, at different spaces,

424
00:46:37,950 --> 00:46:47,279
and in the for your transform in the double for you want to have this number evaluated as the protein folds dynamically and you

425
00:46:47,280 --> 00:46:55,350
want to do it in real time and the time resolved spectroscopy of a folding protein with very little perturbation on the string,

426
00:46:55,620 --> 00:46:58,800
either by its very short pulse of a very short charge.

427
00:46:58,980 --> 00:47:02,070
And that should be possible if we could get such called electrons.

428
00:47:02,250 --> 00:47:06,239
Okay. All right. Well, I'll just have a little bit.

429
00:47:06,240 --> 00:47:16,020
I got this request from my friend who's Contently, who says that we are too simplistic in our understanding of correlations and charged by the system.

430
00:47:16,020 --> 00:47:23,650
That's why we are not making progress. If you look at superconductivity, if actually you have a bunch of electrons, okay,

431
00:47:24,420 --> 00:47:32,249
and if you have some impurity of it, electrons scatters off from it and it gives rise to resistance.

432
00:47:32,250 --> 00:47:38,400
Yeah, that's because the electrons are acting not in in phase, but in coherently.

433
00:47:38,910 --> 00:47:42,750
But if you make them to go in lockstep, like their phases all coupled,

434
00:47:43,110 --> 00:47:49,409
they ignore the impurity and you can actually make it go through actually the

435
00:47:49,410 --> 00:47:54,840
way you can understand superconductivity as superfluidity of charge for that.

436
00:47:55,170 --> 00:47:59,459
So that's what I just showed you, that when the electrons are correlated, they're little.

437
00:47:59,460 --> 00:48:03,030
Macroscopic numbers don't matter, they ignore it and they are coherent flow.

438
00:48:04,080 --> 00:48:09,750
So in a similar way, we are used to correlations in pairwise fashion most of the times.

439
00:48:10,290 --> 00:48:17,699
And like a classical dance of dance between humans, you can define two or three species of gender.

440
00:48:17,700 --> 00:48:20,819
I don't care, but they are still correlated according to that, right?

441
00:48:20,820 --> 00:48:26,100
You do this Cooper pairs or Adam pairs or colloquially that problem.

442
00:48:26,550 --> 00:48:32,430
But problem comes naturally when you have a much more complicated underlying dynamics and you do not have equal species.

443
00:48:32,460 --> 00:48:35,700
What if you have more men on the floor?

444
00:48:36,270 --> 00:48:40,410
What do you do? Do you actually allow the men to stop the dance?

445
00:48:40,920 --> 00:48:44,459
Let me see your question. Time and or pattern and system.

446
00:48:44,460 --> 00:48:50,670
You just go, that's not good, right? Do you want them to just leave the floor so that you feel an equal number of men and women?

447
00:48:51,120 --> 00:48:55,500
And then we have separated the phase of the thing and you are not really acting together.

448
00:48:56,130 --> 00:49:03,750
I did actually invent a new kind of a dance, actually, that does not have to be for very high in order correlation that still allows you

449
00:49:04,110 --> 00:49:10,820
to preserve some kind of a concerted dynamics and with nontrivial correlations.

450
00:49:10,830 --> 00:49:15,540
And that's actually what when you look at the Fermi Gas of electrons of charges,

451
00:49:15,900 --> 00:49:21,540
you have to invent that kind of a correlation and then try to do so after modern dance.

452
00:49:21,870 --> 00:49:34,920
All right. I wanted to show you something that people I was fortunate to have taken class from Mr. Bose before he passed away in 1972.

453
00:49:36,600 --> 00:49:40,829
He passed away in 74. And he actually told me how he came up with the plans.

454
00:49:40,830 --> 00:49:45,540
BLACKBODY And it is the formula that people were delighted with teaching.

455
00:49:46,950 --> 00:49:55,710
People were deriving, uh, when they talk about energy, they were staccato fashion, quantum plants, age ma omega multiples.

456
00:49:55,980 --> 00:50:01,920
But when they're calculating moles in the cavity, there are continual waves and you count normal modes in the cavity.

457
00:50:02,190 --> 00:50:06,629
And he thought there is something wrong with it. Either do all modes or do all particles.

458
00:50:06,630 --> 00:50:12,090
Quantised and as a result the radiation could not be derived appropriately.

459
00:50:12,840 --> 00:50:19,890
He assumed. What the heck, I do not care mathematician. I'm going to assume everything is quantised, including momentum and phase space.

460
00:50:20,280 --> 00:50:26,220
And then quickly within a few steps he got the BlackBerry thing and he got it because he and he was a musician.

461
00:50:26,580 --> 00:50:37,080
He used to play. An instrument called this rod, which is although it string and has frets and it played continuously as opposed to violin.

462
00:50:37,590 --> 00:50:39,299
So I'm going to play a couple of pieces.

463
00:50:39,300 --> 00:50:46,770
One of the violins is not played by time, and one is a piece on this instrument not played by Bose, but he composed it.

464
00:50:47,070 --> 00:50:52,650
His favourite a flute. This is a western violin.

465
00:50:56,240 --> 00:51:02,750
So you can feel the digitised music there. You can hear it in America's digitised truth if you look at Mr. Moses.

466
00:51:02,960 --> 00:51:09,230
It's large. And this is a normal motion box for the raves going on in Quantised.

467
00:51:09,500 --> 00:51:16,970
And if you've seen this composition of somebody else's playing it, of course.

468
00:51:17,570 --> 00:51:27,290
Well. If working really hard, you have to be patient with Eastern music.

469
00:51:31,970 --> 00:51:40,580
Right. You are very aware of this difference of modality from the two or the normal mode one

470
00:51:40,580 --> 00:51:46,219
is and that's trying to come up with this both tentative dates and he said I don't

471
00:51:46,220 --> 00:51:50,930
care whether these are real particles and marvel give me plans long in the three that

472
00:51:50,930 --> 00:51:57,680
might be true turned out to anyway so let me just go on now I finish I finish up.

473
00:51:57,680 --> 00:52:01,999
Well, can you really produce quantum degenerate electron beams?

474
00:52:02,000 --> 00:52:02,780
I do not know.

475
00:52:04,760 --> 00:52:11,270
There comes a point in time in your career where nine out of ten things you were asking for and I can't be done because I have looked at it.

476
00:52:11,540 --> 00:52:16,130
I've thought about it. When that one comes, I think I'll fold and I'll just stop doing research.

477
00:52:16,760 --> 00:52:21,890
But it has not come to me yet. I think there are ways of getting there very close to it.

478
00:52:22,430 --> 00:52:26,600
But you have to just have from imagination, knowledge, the enemy.

479
00:52:26,600 --> 00:52:29,810
At this point we know too much about quantum mechanics and stuff.

480
00:52:29,870 --> 00:52:37,430
We were tempted to say it's probably not going to be possible, but we have to just abandon it and just think carefully about it.

481
00:52:37,920 --> 00:52:44,510
And that I Frankenstein, the end of a 40 year career high energy particle, left letters and stuff that's going on.

482
00:52:44,510 --> 00:52:49,970
I'm still contributing to it, but this is something that probably more young students,

483
00:52:50,120 --> 00:52:54,139
companies like Oxford and stuff should pay attention to become fantastic.

484
00:52:54,140 --> 00:52:57,920
If somebody can do this. Got Nobel Prize one degree Kelvin free.

485
00:52:57,920 --> 00:53:00,440
Let's do it. Thank you.