And welcome to our Tuesday Oxford Modern South Asian Studies seminar.
It's a very great pleasure today to welcome an old friend, a pioneer in the field, someone who is has an unbelievable record of scholarship.
With both range and depth, it is, of course, Professor Benita Damodaran,
who is director of the Centre for World Environmental History at the University of Sussex.
The great thing about Professor Damodaran Scholarship is that one of the many great things is that she was absolutely a pioneer in
the field of amongst a small group of pioneers in the field of environmental history and environmental studies back in the 1980s.
Her, her expertise, her scholarship has explored these questions across a very long time period,
right from the early modern era to our own present day.
And in relation not just to as it were scientific questions like changing climate patterns and the interplay between climate and environment,
but also the vital interplay interplay between climate,
environment and pastoralist communities on whom the phenomenon of climate change impinges or has impinged most directly.
So it's wonderful to be able to welcome someone with this, these riches of scholarship at her fingertips.
Venetia is going to talk to us today. Her title is Hidden Histories of Science, Amal Darlington, Haldane and India 1930 to 1960.
Vanessa Jones Thank you, Polly, for the very nice, fulsome introduction and a great pleasure to be here in Oxford and to see you again.
And I'll start sharing my screen quite quickly so that I'll speak for about 40 minutes and
hopefully we can proceed from that right so that we'll see that hopefully everyone can.
So the my topic, as the police said, is hidden histories of science.
Amol Darlington hold in and India 1930 to 1960 and my presentation is going to take you through some of these themes looking particularly at this,
a remarkable intellectual effervescence which began in the early 20th century that led to a series of interdisciplinary debates around genetics,
psychology, botany and eugenics amongst scientists globally.
The outcome of these debates was a better understanding of humanity's past and the role of humans within the natural world,
leading to an anti-racist science movement and post-war environmentalism in the mid-20th century.
And I think that's quite critical that many of these debates that I'm going to be talking
about today lead in these different directions to both anti-racism and environmentalism.
So this paper, I think, explores for the first time the development of these debates and the network of scientists that emerged
in Britain and India and the unrecognised contribution of a Western trained colonial scientist,
particularly Jonathan Mahler, woman scientist, the pioneering woman.
And we hope that by by looking at a particular network that emerged in the context of in the context of the
spirit to enhance understanding of the practises of science and the spirit by examining the role of race,
gender and indigenous knowledge from the colonies in the cross-fertilisation of ideas.
So the broader impact of these debates later on, of course, which I will not be have time to explore, will be in reference to scientific humanism,
which continues to be a significant part of the humanist movement in Britain today,
and one which was instrumental in transforming India post independence and was upheld until recently as one of India's foundational principles.
So what I when to come back to some of the themes of the key theme of this paper,
which is genetics and how genetics sort of links up with this Typekit eugenics, with cytology with botany and later on with ecology.
So genetics as a discipline was slow in coming of age even in the 1920s,
as eminent woman societal geneticist Barbara McClintock was to note, genetics have not yet received general acceptance.
Twenty one years have passed since the rediscovery of Mendel's principles of heredity.
Genetic experiments guided by these principles expanded rapidly in the years between nineteen hundred and nineteen twenty one.
The results of these studies provided a solid conceptual framework into which subsequent results would be fitted.
Nevertheless, there was reluctance on the part of some professional biologists to accept the revolutionary concepts that were surfacing.
So there is this intellectual of public service,
and the discovery of cytogenetics produced three remarkable individuals whose lives crisscrossed a new and interesting ways in the 1930s, 40s and 50s.
The pursuit of science to a European man at the peak of their careers in the biological sciences.
And the third was an unknown Indian woman scientist of mixed race and so-called low-cost origins,
equivocal encounters and discussions on biology, eugenics, philosophy and politics.
I like the cosmopolitan nature of science and the empire of cosmopolitanism.
That is surprising given the dominant racial ideas of the time and one that was lost as narrow,
utilitarian perspectives of the national science began to dominate in India after independence.
One writer has noted that the science of genetics had from its inception,
being an international venture with collaborations and international networks of science across continents.
So this paper then traces that trajectory probably to the lens of the relationship between the Indian woman Sitel Genesis's Ekere,
Jonica amongst the population, Genesis's Gebbia as Holden and the man who discovered the chromosome seedlings of.
So let me give you a sort of potted biography of each of these people, so I'm I was born into a poor family of northern lullaby.
In 1897, a mother baby was a mixed race daughter of John Child Huntington of the Madras Civil Service.
Her father, a Christian, was a stalwart of the local community who had risen to the position of a sub judge in the Territory High Court.
He could, Johnny, she was then known how to schooling in Sacred Heart Girls High School and Tell Story,
followed by a B.A. honours degree in botany from Queen Mary College Dress.
Missionary dedication provided the way out, of course, embraces the restrictions the union between Krishna and Debbie,
her mother and father, have been frowned upon by both sides of the racial divide.
White peers, as the mixed races came to be known, was seen as impure by their political brethren,
and marriage alliances with the children were hard to come by.
It was in these circumstances that John McCain chose a life of scholarship for marriage.
With it came geographical dislocation and an opportunity to move away from a constraining background in terms of gender, class and race.
Her life and science had begun a marginal status as a woman and as a low cost mixed race Indian had was transformed in the process.
It was my welcome to the lecture of the Women's Christian College Madras and early 1920s that
she received a scholarship from Michigan University where she received an M.A. in 1945,
returning again to complete Odyssey in 1991. Why did Michigan she worked with Harley Bartlett, professor of botany.
What a broad spectrum of scientific interest from botany to the history of science and also inspire her later forays into botany.
On the way back to India in 1931, she spent a year at the John Innes Institute.
Where she walked with CD Darlington, and this was the this sort of signal, the start of a new friendship.
So she was on her return to India in 1932, she returned soon after India 1932,
she was appointed a professor of botany at the Maharashtra at the Maharaja College of Science in Trivandrum,
followed by a five year stint of the Sugarcane Breeding Institute in Coimbatore,
where she devoted herself to genetic studies contributing to the breeding of sugarcane.
In nineteen thirty nine,
she travelled to Edinburgh to take part in the International Congress of Genetics and was compelled to remain in Britain for the duration of the war.
This photograph was taken when she was in England during the war period from 1940 to 1945.
She was assistant psychologist to see the Darlington at the John Innes Institute,
and it was here that she worked on the origin and evolution of cultivated plants, which became a classic,
resulting in the chromosome atlas of cultivated plants,
which you co-authored with Darlington and which became an important source for psychological work of economic plants of the world.
And this photograph was taken when she joined John Anderson's when she joined the richest the Royal Horticultural Society,
and was Ellie Hall in the late 1940s. And it's little known that she was the first female employee of the RSS.
She returned to India in 1948, meeting Nehru on the plane and a career as a national scientists have gone by.
1955, she was director of the Central Botanical Laboratory of the Government of India at Lucknow,
and she was to become fellow of the Linnean Society of London,
the Royal Geographical Society, the Asia Society of Bengal, the Royal Islamic Society in London, and the Indian Academy of Sciences.
In fact, Jonathan Mann was one of the founding members of the academy and the first woman member.
An honorary doctorate was bestowed on her in 1955 by the University of Michigan and one of her contemporaries,
Subramaniam, who was the director of the Centre for Advanced Study in Madras and Botany,
has written about her passion for plants, croplands, garden plants, plantation crops,
medicinal crops and tribal plants he saw as an original thinker during epochal work on intergender hybrids such as Sacrum,
Zero, Sacramental Sacrament, Merita and Spectrum of her pioneering work was in the cytogenetics of saccharin or fish and animals,
sugarcane and into specific and intergender hybrids involving sugarcane and both closely
related lot of grass genera and very distantly related ones such as bamboozled bamboo.
Studies on chromosome numbers employed, as he noted, were directed to ascertaining the role of hybridisation and the evolution of flowering plants
work that she had started the Darlington as a first salaried member of the auto chess.
As I said, she undertook investigations on cochineal and its users and introducing Floyd Floyd.
The focus will work on selection was very much part of the whole interest in genetics,
as this time I'm continued after to return to India, where she worked on the General Solo named after our mentor champion Amanda Soria.
She was very interested in the confidence of Chinese and Mulan with Indian Flora Stick Elements in the Northeast,
and she believed this led to natural hybridisation between these and contributed greatly to species diversification.
As Subramaniam noted, those cytology was a a welcome based genetics evolution, citing geography and ethno botany.
So early professional career was closely associated with this chap, Darlington, as I said, and then I come to this biography,
who his biographer had described as belonging to the Great School of British Genesis's evolutionists and biological
statisticians produced by a country basking in the afterglow of eminent Victorians Charles Darwin and Francis Galton.
On debates on what coined the term genetic psychological research at the John Innes,
arguing for the central principle of mentalism inherited heterogeneity through breeding
experiments similar to Edmund Wilson's expressions across the Atlantic and Columbia.
But there were serious differences. Matson was rejecting the chromosomal theory of relativity and does not accept research of
the gene in this that found exceptions to the chromosomal basis of genetics was encouraged.
The Clintons always work on debates, and in fact,
Newton was annoyed by the existence of more than two homologous chromosomes in the chromosome complement.
His first article in Nature, which later became known as Darlington Rule,
was that there was a negative correlation between the motility of the pipe only Floyd and that of the diploid from which it arose.
But Darlington was moving away from Bateman's work in 1930,
he began to make significant contributions to the understanding of the relationship of genetic
crossing over the microscopically observed events that the chromosome passed through during meals.
So as first psychological block,
recent advances in cytology was a landmark in it to expose the dynamic qualities of chromosome behaviour and the role in genetics and selection.
What was at stake for biology was common, notes one of his biographers, the hidden boundaries between psychology, genetics and evolutionary theory.
Darlington was a psychologist interested in evolutionary theory.
He never stepped out into the field, and many of his ideas, especially in the U.S., continue to be treated with caution.
Later in his life, Darlington returned to the subject of history, becoming, as his biographer noted,
one of the most fascinating and controversial exponents of the socio biological approach to human culture.
So late in the 1930s, he was interested in the variety of human cultures.
In 1933, he visited India for the first time on the invitation of Amal and the cost system and Tribes First Nation Amal and encouraged his interest.
And he noted the scientific work of Sugarcane Breeding Institute, where Amal worked in positive terms,
noting that the hybrids seemed likely to revolutionise sugarcane growing in India and elsewhere.
In 1947, he visited India again, and he had begun reading on a variety of subjects in the history of different peoples,
empires, religions and the behaviour of men. In 1960, Darlington, having returned to his interest in the origin and structure of society,
Pastor John acouple information on cost in India and in particular, the distribution of criminal courts.
He had moved on from the study of chromosomes to social genetics and to an interpretation of language class raised in society and in biological terms.
So he became, of course,
very much to the right of the eugenics movement and was very much interested in the application of biology to to his care and racial theories.
So he'd always been interested in culture and society in 1927,
you joined the Eugenics Society and the invitation letter to the society noted that I quote,
it's widely appreciated amongst biologists in general that the neglect of biological and unethical knowledge and
modern legislation may lead to incalculable damage in our own people and those of other civilised communities.
In 1947, along with artificial whose it was windowless, just being taken down by Glenville and King's College,
he co-founded Heredity, an international journal of genetics.
Fish like Darlington and others of your generation, including Holden, was interested in the application of genetics to map as you genesis.
They believe the genetics needed to become the causal framework. Not only but as the social movement as was.
Forty years of the century, as much lot genetics was synonymous with eugenics between the wars that was still possible to be a scientist,
a socialist, a meritocratic and the eugenicist. The most advanced mathematical methodologies employed in genetics were embraced
in the 1930s by critics of the way in which ethical theory was being misused.
LED by Lancelot Holden, Haldane and Lionel Penrose, each of them was in their own way,
appalled by the crude class prejudices manifested by mainline genetics, so they were the left of genetics.
What was ironic with these critics thought to produce a truly objective science of genetics,
like whipping themselves methodologies created by the supporters of eugenics in Germany?
Well, as we know, the programme was Bush's ultimate extreme. So the third person in our triumvirate is just holding.
Let me give the first Weldon, professor of genetics at the University of London in seven, was at the forefront of these debates.
It was considered he's considered one of the founders of population genetics,
which was to become a major component of the modern synthesis, which in the sense of mind, mentalism and Darwinism.
An influential contribution to the field was a 1924 article, the first of a series of mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection.
Holden also made significant contributions to biochemistry, physiology and human genetics.
In 1932, he was selected. He was elected to be fellow of the Royal Society was outstanding.
Contribution wasn't mathematical genetics. Where are you?
Mathematically dealt with problems dealing with Darwinian variation and establish the relationship of Mendelian genetics or evolution?
A lifelong Marxist who was critical of the Lampkin of some of the anti-communist eugenicists like E.W. McBride,
a committed gender system selection vs. views like those of Darlington run counter to the egalitarian environmental emphasis of the last cosmology.
The great Russian biologist,
whose whose environmental systems were discredited by other biologists and which was strongly reminiscent of the modern thinking about a 1948,
had become the official Soviet and had become official Soviet policy biology.
So the relationship between Lysenko, Holden and Darlington is not so much part of our story,
but that brought them to a broader great rift between them.
Lysenko had denied Mendel in gymnastics, proposing his own genetics, which did not view the gene as a unit of morality,
but rather held a Lampkin view that the hereditary traits of plants could be influenced by external conditions.
And this was part of the sort of egalitarian communist sort of endeavour.
Despite his own scientific theory, Lysenko had considerable success in increasing the yield of industrial problems such as rye,
wheat, cotton, potato and sunflower.
And by 1948, licences would start in the USSR as a fact and hold it as a communist in the late 1930s and a member of the Communist Party since 1942.
The member of the executive committee since 1944 was initially sympathetic towards licenced schools arguments,
arguing that the real content of the proletarian demand for quality is the demand for
the abolition of any demand for quality beyond that necessary parcels and to absurdity.
So you can see how much he was enmeshed in the eugenics movement as well as Holman notes,
Lai centralism during the war and during and after the war and until the summer of 1948 pose little problem to the broader
goals of the Scientific Left that a planned economy and that of science as a model and a vehicle for human needs.
Another writer poll suggests that there may have been more or less engross in India,
France and Brazil than in England, but in England, people were forced to choose between science and communism.
Sydney Darlington, however, was vocal in his criticism of Ally Soyinka's arguing that a government which relied on the
absence of inborn class and race differences in man as the basis of its political theory,
was unnaturally happy about the science of genetics, which relies on the presence of such differences.
Other critics, such as our officials, have condemned my central in the 1940s and Holden and Darlington fell out of a Holden's failure adequately
to understand the threat posed by lots of coal and the stranglehold over Soviet science in Stalin's Russia,
Mandela Genesis was exiled in its practitioners, punished.
Many Marxist who had been sympathetic to the socialist experiment joined the anti-Soviet campaign, although as noted,
holding those due to his Marxist allegiances showed a remarkable reluctance
to Lysenko when Darlington and other Western janitors were openly critical.
So here is here is this report,
here is a whole Dane who had started the journal Heather Duffy with Fisher in 1947 as a Journal of the Genetics Society right now deciding what?
What would you, what would you do with his future scientific career?
So by the late 1940s, things were changing the face of overwhelming evidence in the lifecycle,
Holden withdrew from the Communist Party activities before finally leaving it.
It was the invasion of the Suez in 1956, however, that he himself credits with those leaving Britain for India.
So he moves Holden also in 1947 in the Suez Crisis, denouncing Western imperialism.
And he takes the Journal of Genetics with him, which he runs with his wife, Helen.
So we're inviting John again while to contribute to it.
So I'm exposed to encountered Holden in England through Darlington.
While she was at the John Innes Institute for a while, she was at the John Adams Institute, probably about this time for the duration of the war.
And she sent him an urgent message asking to borrow a microscope for psychological work which had her which, as it transpired,
would not provide an academic relationship and friendship followed with meetings, letters and exchange of gifts over a long period.
In 1925, Holden wrote to her at the Central Botanical Laboratory in Lucknow,
thanking her for the gift of a lighter and more people on the subsistence economy of India, which she later published in this.
In this pioneering volume in 1955, which was on how mind changed the face of Earth,
which was the pulsar volume published by the University of Chicago.
He questioned her assertion that the mother is all upper class Brahmins in India with a
pure line reference to the adjoined and quarries in the population genetics of India,
which was an interest all three of them shared after Holden's arrival in India.
I think I've got a picture of them in India, if I can.
There was a joint visit with the students in 1961 that included a visit to Allahabad at Amal's invitation,
where she showed him our laboratory and several slides of chromosomes of Indian plant species and took the troupe on a fine excursion.
Into the local countryside outside of Lubbock, we hold it against the advice of a local Brahmin jumped into the River Ganges,
which was supposed to contain the freshwater crocodile and how to swim amongst recorded impressions of the visit letters of Darlington.
I wish I'd known on, and she's referential a colleague would return to India and continue on theological research.
She would make a good partner for her son, JB's, who, by the way, got his Indian citizenship the other day.
I wonder if you also taught him when he visited Alabama. I drove him in Helena,
which within hours and he was very respectful in front of the Shoval temple and even more respectful when we came to the shrine.
The temple dedicated to the wife of Shiva. I like ladies, you said I'm seeing me standing rather aloof.
He turned around and chided me, saying, You're not even though we are a Buddhist Johnny.
Then the two of them and a student of yours waded through the filth of the Temple Alley in search of a beetle shock to chew upon.
I had a difficult time trying to keep the Temple Bulls from charging dubious garlands,
the one the priest gave him at the Temple of Shiva, which were not.
Quote close. However, the relationship between Darlington and Holden soured,
the relationship between a modern Holden was often affected by the animosity as a reflection of the lack of interest in an anthropologist.
Holden was critical of the new gentleman completely, and its crude racial typology is edited by Robert Wood,
who had Ruggles creates a friend of Darlington on its editorial board,
noting in a letter to a small vote, I should avoid him in correspondence with any journal which which honour Gates is connected.
I'm only surprised that it does not have to do Darlington amongst its editorial board in a more humorous vein, he added.
Quote an editor called Garriga Misclassified Men by their hair in Mangold's It Straight and Negroes, Canadian publications and fat.
It's clear that you send a copy of this letter to Darlington that is also found in the papers and the Baldwin.
Holden became an Indian citizen in 1964, disillusioned by British politics.
He was attracted by the Herald's Neutral East Policy Holden and SPI-B,
but both offered jobs in 1957 to the Indian Statistical Institute to the point of being Holden was close to retirement from UCL.
He, like Darlington, always had a deep interest in Indian history, religions, languages and cultures,
and would often quote passages in Indian languages during lectures whose first visit to India had been in 1917,
when he was recovering from wounds received in Mesopotamia and in 1980 he formed a resolution to the time.
Once we have achieved independence, the holding papers provide evidence of Holden's long interest in Indian politics and his association with India.
The Indian Relief Committee and the Indian Science Congress at the cusp of independence.
Those letters, acquaintance of VK Christian M.A. from as early as 1943, Holden also became a member of Indian Relief Committee in 1943.
Networking events Indian academics, including PC Mohan, the Indian Statistical Institute, with whom we would later work with in Calcutta.
It was Monrovia's who invited Holden to visit him in India and 46. He was unable to make the journey there.
But of course, as we know, he went later.
He finally visited India in 1951, was invited to dinner with a selection of politicians and academics, including Nehru A. and both.
Over the next five years before moving to India, he was in communication with a number of Indian academics and politicians,
including all narasimhan of the sugarcane, including the student.
SD Roy-Chowdhury, lecturer himself to the university, made Nazar and SS Mogga writing to.
Butnow the funding of the laboratory of Roy, who made a plea that the study of Indian species was invaluable as their psychological behaviour.
No close parallel in Europe or North America. He was invited to conferences, asked for advice and some papers for feedback.
In 1953, horror of the National Institute of Sciences of India thanked him for the best Indian dinner yet in London since left India Hill,
even before he left, England permanently got a taste for Indian food.
This was vastly different from Darlington, whose only forays into Indian food you described as in digestible.
On his arrival in India, Holden became a research associate of the Indian Statistical Institute of 1761.
This is a period well covered in the secondary literature of the institute. He helped to set up units in the research of genetics and palaeontology.
Later, he moved to a nation where the chief minister oversaw Boltzmann Institute for Genetics and Biometrics,
where he played an important role in strengthening international scientific relationships.
And then you're holding saw the Darwinian Darwinian theory of evolution from a fresh perspective,
noting that Hinduism did not distinguish them to distinguish between humans and other animals.
Unlike in Christian theology, a moral to Darlington in 1960,
Holden was very much in the papers lately over the false he undertook personally recently.
He comes, comes to scientific meetings and pyjamas and wears notice I loincloth at all.
She was beaten leaves while Helen smokes beads and sips Chen quarters.
She included with the school newspaper cuttings with a letter showing a picture of Holden sitting down reading with the caption,
Professor JibJab is holding and walking a thousand Border Patrol Calcutta on the third day of his fast.
Quote his left ankle ankle isn't lost as a result of an injury sustained during his recent visit to the Long Island floods Congress,
the Statesman photos The headlines noted that Holden's quote fast and just the to Calcutta January 20th.
Professor JB is holding. The British scientist continued his forecast for the fourth day today in protest
against what he calls just currency of the United States Information Service here,
says PTI. Clearly, Holden was closing miles while sensational in India, though,
equip Auckland counties of St. John's apologies neglected story of the history of science, though no less remarkable for the waste.
Transcript gender, race and national boundaries Through the interactions, meetings and discussions over a 50 year period,
the three individuals showed a strong friendship and respect for each other.
Scientific endeavours highlighting the cosmopolitan nature of science at the end of the hold in India
became the new centre as we to the site of a walk to Calcutta in 1957 and Bhubaneshwar in 1960.
Formal notwithstanding the many hurdles placed on how by the side of the patriarchy, she criss crossed continents,
basing herself in India from the 1930s, challenging the narrow, utilitarian constraints of the national side.
Opening the doors to New Horizons for university research in the pursuit of cytogenetics,
botany and through institutional leadership with regard to the Botanical Survey of India,
where she later headed for Darlington as patronage of John Campbell.
Imprudent Interest in India,
which was also revived in the 1960s as he moved on from the study of chromosomes to social genetics and to an interpretation of language,
class, race and society in biology.
Their relationship and their discussions, their prejudices are documented in their letters to each other and to other scientists,
indicating a fascinating period in the history of science. I now move to a section where I look at the impact of these networks and the fact
that John Kimmel was still very much operating within a patriarchy of science.
So, Miles, range of academic contacts and colleagues extended round the world,
extensive scientific correspondence, as I said, extended to scientists and academics as he all day Newton Bob,
a professor of botany at the University of Sydney, who send us students constant constantly, oddly later to become a lecturer in botany in Adelaide.
To work with that was pure colour. The Hungarian jellis assistant professor of cytogenetics at the Institute of Cancer Research London.
Several Edinburgh and Cubist botanists such as Gilbert Physical and Polynesians, Ruggles Gates and Eileen McFall and Ruggles Gates,
was married to Marie Stopes Gauguin and who divorced him on grounds of emergency.
She kept a copious correspondence with many of these,
but few about letters and collections of survived Indian scientific friends included eminent agricultural scientists such as MSC,
11.10am, BP, Paul Genesis and plant breeder and director of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
She valued a personal friendships, with many of them called Swaminathan and Barlow good friends to old friend Paul Coller.
Her correspondence includes a reference to his daughter Crystal,
an academic ideas and experience of translocation and geographic displacement provided opportunities for building international friendships.
And she also successfully as a respected female scientist in many public institutions.
Normally, the preserve of men so scientific and sometimes highly personal correspondence
between Darlington and I'm always preserving the modern library in Oxford and
provides a remarkable insight into the nature of a very particular scientific
relationship that spanned different continents and across gender and racial barriers.
Her only letters to Darlington reveal an independent thinking young woman scientist with a great deal of self-respect and self-esteem.
When she joined the John Innes in 1931, she was joining one of the Britain's most vibrant biological communities.
It had become, as I said, to Britain's Premier Institute for Genetic Research,
contributing fundamental insights into the chromosomal basis of heritage. And how did did he and his role in evolution?
And when he wrote his masterpiece, it had come on recent advances in psychology,
which was also an attack on Lamarck, an inheritance it had placed him firmly in the new Darwinian time.
It was have become a major force reckoned with. So when she joined him, yeah, he had 15 people working under him.
He had created the largest school of its kind in the world, and one of these researchers was John Ngema.
On May 1931, she wrote an introductory letter to him, noting that she was anxious to do the psychology of a trip.
Lloyd eggplant portals. By the end of the year, she was working on second sorghum hybrids, noting eloquently quote,
There is a terrific amount of variation in the F1 and some of the dwarfs and painful look as
though they are aching to disclose something psychologically and genetically quote close.
So Darlington was typical of the scientific mantles of spirit and that an extending as
large as two female employees under me often found intimate relationships with them,
if only briefly, John, to give us a prove no exception,
and in three of letters written to him in 1934, which indicates our emotional involvement with him.
Darlington Diaries record his lunches at McCain Jonathan Chelsea in 1925 with crumpets and curry.
By 1935, the account was over and later moved on, marrying the student Margaret Up Court in 1947.
This was only to be a brief, passionate instance, but the relationship was one that was dominate a man's life.
As noted by a very small ultra of the progressive attitude in some male scientific mentors of women,
scientists often related some form of emotional involvement, leading to collaborative work.
Women scientists tend to follow this route rather than take on the precarious position of songs that result in the absence of a male mentor.
All the letters to Darlington followed, this time from India,
where she had written in 1932 and from the imperial sugarcane of student Coimbatore, which was looking 1934.
I shall try to accomplish something in sacramental mythology so as to get an open sesame to the USSR.
My new microscope arrived last week a light like spinal column.
I have fixed enough material to keep me engaged for three years, which was suddenly Russian.
Genetics and psychological studies were highly rated before the Lysenko affair in 1938,
she wrote to his new wife, Margaret, also a botanist and a former student, on a new paper.
I'm using the term cloudy, as suggested by City of Calcutta, to discuss Trueplay idea within the poly ployed series.
I should, however, wish to have a school acceptance of the meaning before I do so with secondary astrology too.
I would like to send this note current science, which which is India's nature when you send it back.
Despite how to walk in the field, Amol faced several hurdles in the mail scientific establishment in India and in Britain,
and even from Darlington itself, and this correspondence is very indicative of it, which I've got on the slide here for you.
In one letter in August 1938, she notes of the visit of Ruggles Gates to Coimbatore.
It has taken some several long months time to do the harm that the gates did, the cause of a simple death spend in Guam at all.
Mr. Venkatraman was completely taken in by the professor's keen interest in
the work done incorporate all his fault information and his generous manner,
hence the doubt expressed not to me, but to make drama about the validity of the Sarabjit across stock index funds.
Brain and my no true nature was not set up, sent up to the director of Agriculture with the necessary permission to publish it outside India or close.
So here she is, talking about this excellent paper she had submitted to Nature, which was being held up by the head of the Coimbatore Institute,
a Brahmin, Venkatraman, who had listened to Ruggles Gates and they both doubted the validity of her research.
So she writes again, I very nearly decided to leave the station as a result of all this, and life became very complicated.
However, I refused to be repeated. I'm glad to report the bank dramas that last commenced the process.
Genuine hotels The Alternator Nature was finally published in 1938.
The same letter went on to say, I wonder where I shall be, when I should be able to attend the Genitive Congress next year.
My five year contract with the Imperial Council for Agricultural Research ends in May 1939.
So here is a line patrolman who was not able to blocking the walk of John Campbell, Darlington was also not above Dominic.
Jonathan was left with faint praise and this is what you see when John Russell, director of The Wrath of the Experimental Station,
wrote to him on the 10th of May 1937, noting that he had met her in Coimbatore and enquiring Could you kindly tell me whether walks him sound,
whether it's simply the nature of a student's exercise or can be dignified with the title of such,
Darlington supply was indicative of the lack of support and jealousy that a male routinely preys on the male scientific establishment.
The question of Jonathan Ball seems to be I got to be part of a larger problem of practitioners of psychology in India are very numerous,
but psychological walkabout standing interests are not.
The reason for this seems to be that Indians going for psychology because they think it is a matter of technique and needs no thought otherwise.
But psychology has begun to require a great deal of thought during the last few years.
The job hasn't turned out to be what they thought it was. Therefore, when I say John again, all of this sounds a little better than anyone else.
I do not need to bear lost compliments.
I think she is doing sound work and will continue to do so for some time just because a great deal of elementary
exploration of this field is necessary and she cannot fail to be of value to the genesis of working with others.
So that is damning with faint praise. You further noted,
I think it's a great pity the numbers of Indians come to this country to take the issue degrees
in psychology just because they think it's an easy subject and having obtained their PhDs,
which never failed to do so, return to secular rebels in India. We refuse to take such people have this perception of our mobile mental.
It be said to be part of a racialised worldview held by men, men such as Darlington,
the list, the skewed nature of science at this time, to which we can now turn.
So we know some come to the my last section of the paper, which is on eugenics and race in the mid-20th century,
so the mid-20th century, then eugenics was a popular topic in fiction and non-fiction.
Plant breeders called science fiction authors and evolutionary biologists wrote about it.
Darlington,
Amal and Holden were all interested in eugenics in the 1930s and its study of the practise of selective breeding as applied to human beings.
Amal joined the Eugenics Society in 1931 and always retained an interest in Jennings.
She had willingly obliged Darlington in this collection on Aboriginal racism India
providing ethnographic details of tribes and cultures in South India for the 1930s,
well into the 1970s. Does it also become an overlapping interest of all, as she had become interested in medicinal plants?
In 1961, she wrote a post with three more books by Majumdar. You will find blood groups, of course, on one.
Darlington, as we have seen it, work with Artificial, one of the founders of Modern Evolutionary Synthesis, who study.
And here's a picture I can give you of artificial, one of the founders of modern evolutionary synthesis,
who studies Watson's definitive statement of the mathematical basis of natural selection fishers work on
mathematical gymnastics ends with a long discussion of the problem of deceased fertility in the upper classes,
revealing the author's eugenic opinions of how to promote the breeding of favoured members of society and restrict others.
It's a telling reminder of how eugenics was often seamlessly combined with other perfectly valid scientific ideas.
Darlington Trilogy of Books, Genetics and Man 1964 Evolution of Modern Society in 1969, the little universal by 1978,
together integrated as eugenicist views and showed how little they had changed over a period of 15 years.
His first book was more hardline than the others,
but even the last book Powerful Anti Abortion for Mothers and differential taxation to encourage certain parts of society to reproduce.
Dubious hold holding was not far behind. As the foremost populariser of science on the day, his books aim to predict the scientific future.
Its ideas were highly influential to the public and indeed many of the ideas in Huxley's Brave New World were directly to the.
In the future,
Bolger Holden stated the view that a moderate level of voluntary eugenics is as sudden as Wall Street turned into a human form is unlikely.
The link between monoculture and biology had captured the minds of both hold in the letter, inviting Dalton to join the Unigene society.
As I said, 19 percent signed by Huxley, Fisher and McBride, Darlington had made connexions between the breeding of plants and that of men.
And as all your travels to India with Jonathan 1930s took on new meaning as you began reading on the history of Andrew on history,
language in archaeology, cost fascination and the subdivision of races, as I said into smaller doctor groups govern their racial evolution form.
For him, man's intellectual and cultural evolution have led not to.
The absence of race is found in other species, but a special character in these races,
resulting from the unique product of artificial and natural selection.
The slippage between race and culture reflected most of the force Darwinian evolution hold in it also being part of the eugenics movement.
As I said, the six in 1932, the inequality of man had argued with regard to physical characteristics.
Quote Men are not born equal.
Father, you stated that eugenics is at present that I quote the only possible way of improving the innate characters of man.
The progress of biology in the next century will lead to the recognition of the innate inequality of maths.
Holden also maintains an interest in difference, even in the 1950s 60s,
pushing for quantitative anthropology in India and commenting on the work of Throne Maraj, an Indian anthropologist.
I quote Since you saw him, Norman Rogers revolutionised indigenous policy.
He has got good evidence that the Henry pin of the year is widely suspected for 50 years.
Its frequency is about six percent and entrepreneurship 20 percent in West Bengal, 37 percent in Bengal, 37 percent in Ceylon.
It's a much better character than blood groups. He's got plenty more human results, but that's but that is enough to be going on with photos.
Interestingly, as I said, hold it at showing us less wing tendencies by ending is also welcomed by noting that in future,
mankind may be divided into costs like Hindus or termites.
But in this time, that recognition of innate policy would lead not to less, but a greater equality of opportunity.
In many ways, one can argue that as the 1940s progressed,
Darlington went to the right of the eugenics movement while holding much to the left in UNESCO's.
And this is where I end with Darlington and in in the unicycle meeting in 1951.
The statement of race following the political climate at the end of Nazi Germany denied any relationship between culture and genes,
emphasising genetic dynamism,
rendering the concept of race scientifically meaningless and rejecting the notions that race is defined in mental capacity.
Or that there was a hierarchy of races and dangers for miscegenation.
The UNESCO's statement was recommended by Julian Assange as Holden and other eminent scientists,
Darlington could not accept this view being of the firm belief that different races could never arise in similar environments,
and that groups defined innate capacities claim intelligence varied amongst races.
But trying to prove that races do not define these respects, we do not. We do no service to mankind.
We conceal the great problems which confronts mankind,
namely how to use the gifts and talents of each race for the benefit of all races for everyone and all and use the same.
How should it profit us to work together and what an empty world it would be?
So you get these very interesting statements.
In 1950, the two statements that emerged one the biology biological factor of race and is a myth and should be distinguished as a social construct,
which was the main statement in 1950 and which they thought was hijacked by social scientists under the agency of Ashley Montagu.
And then in 1951, you get the scientists producing a sort of supplementary version and that sort of tells you how
eugenics was still alive and kicking even in the 1950s under the guise of an anti-racist science.
And there's been some very excellent work written on it. But the fact that there was so much slippage between race, culture,
ethnicity is still very much and how ethnicity is used as a euphemism for race is something that we can discuss, perhaps in the discussion.
And here in this particular quote, you can see what you can see,
the argument that raises determined by biological heritage gave this is the statement,
the additional statement in 1991 by design from particular parents and thus cannot be used to describe groups whose association is political,
national, religious or gender, community of language or to other cultural or social factors.
And these are not biologically inherited.
So the scientists here will continue to hold on to the idea that race was quite important for them as as a construct,
and they did not as a biological fact. They could. They could not just leave it as a social construct.
So it can be argued that the pervasiveness of eugenic ideas, eugenic ideas even in the 1950s and 30s,
40s and even early in the 1950s would have lasted longer had it not been for Nazi Germany,
and the fact that post-war human genetics distanced itself from Nazi race based policies.
Forward thinking scientists, including Holden Penrose Huxley, with a notable exception,
exception of Darlington, use modern evolutionary biology and genetics to combat racism in us.
This group, Kelly included Kim, also stem from a published welcome correspondence.
Darlington, unfortunately, had somewhat stubbornly refused to change his ideas.
The seven book page book Evolution of Modern Society Detailed is complete philosophy of biological determinism
and was received by the scientific community would shock some reviewers called abuse in a scandalous.
With the arrival of Watson in Cambridge in 1952,
molecular genetics had taken over Darlington Science and a new trend in genetics and evolutionary biology had come to dominate.
By 1975, many of Darlington scholars, including Fisher, Holden and Huxley, advanced on old and died at the age of 22.
Consent within Asia, India, Amal and Darlington soldiered on until the nineteen eighties,
maintaining their friendship until darling son's death in 1981, followed by a mile in 1984.
Their parts had gradually diverged, while Darlington continued to perpetuate his views that some people in society were more important than others.
Amal had written to entrust national botany of tribal communities in India and for conservation,
supporting a project on saving the Sun finally in India.
Steering clear of the politics of both Holden and Darlington models to continue our pursuit of empirical science.
The laboratory mother of Madras until her death until her death.
So I'll stop there and I'm open to questions.