1 00:00:00,720 --> 00:00:07,800 And welcome to our Tuesday Oxford Modern South Asian Studies seminar. 2 00:00:07,800 --> 00:00:19,380 It's a very great pleasure today to welcome an old friend, a pioneer in the field, someone who is has an unbelievable record of scholarship. 3 00:00:19,380 --> 00:00:26,910 With both range and depth, it is, of course, Professor Benita Damodaran, 4 00:00:26,910 --> 00:00:35,940 who is director of the Centre for World Environmental History at the University of Sussex. 5 00:00:35,940 --> 00:00:45,930 The great thing about Professor Damodaran Scholarship is that one of the many great things is that she was absolutely a pioneer in 6 00:00:45,930 --> 00:00:56,750 the field of amongst a small group of pioneers in the field of environmental history and environmental studies back in the 1980s. 7 00:00:56,750 --> 00:01:06,710 Her, her expertise, her scholarship has explored these questions across a very long time period, 8 00:01:06,710 --> 00:01:13,610 right from the early modern era to our own present day. 9 00:01:13,610 --> 00:01:27,320 And in relation not just to as it were scientific questions like changing climate patterns and the interplay between climate and environment, 10 00:01:27,320 --> 00:01:31,520 but also the vital interplay interplay between climate, 11 00:01:31,520 --> 00:01:43,790 environment and pastoralist communities on whom the phenomenon of climate change impinges or has impinged most directly. 12 00:01:43,790 --> 00:01:52,070 So it's wonderful to be able to welcome someone with this, these riches of scholarship at her fingertips. 13 00:01:52,070 --> 00:02:04,320 Venetia is going to talk to us today. Her title is Hidden Histories of Science, Amal Darlington, Haldane and India 1930 to 1960. 14 00:02:04,320 --> 00:02:12,590 Vanessa Jones Thank you, Polly, for the very nice, fulsome introduction and a great pleasure to be here in Oxford and to see you again. 15 00:02:12,590 --> 00:02:21,560 And I'll start sharing my screen quite quickly so that I'll speak for about 40 minutes and 16 00:02:21,560 --> 00:02:35,660 hopefully we can proceed from that right so that we'll see that hopefully everyone can. 17 00:02:35,660 --> 00:02:38,660 So the my topic, as the police said, is hidden histories of science. 18 00:02:38,660 --> 00:02:53,780 Amol Darlington hold in and India 1930 to 1960 and my presentation is going to take you through some of these themes looking particularly at this, 19 00:02:53,780 --> 00:03:03,500 a remarkable intellectual effervescence which began in the early 20th century that led to a series of interdisciplinary debates around genetics, 20 00:03:03,500 --> 00:03:08,480 psychology, botany and eugenics amongst scientists globally. 21 00:03:08,480 --> 00:03:16,280 The outcome of these debates was a better understanding of humanity's past and the role of humans within the natural world, 22 00:03:16,280 --> 00:03:22,640 leading to an anti-racist science movement and post-war environmentalism in the mid-20th century. 23 00:03:22,640 --> 00:03:26,000 And I think that's quite critical that many of these debates that I'm going to be talking 24 00:03:26,000 --> 00:03:34,070 about today lead in these different directions to both anti-racism and environmentalism. 25 00:03:34,070 --> 00:03:40,250 So this paper, I think, explores for the first time the development of these debates and the network of scientists that emerged 26 00:03:40,250 --> 00:03:46,820 in Britain and India and the unrecognised contribution of a Western trained colonial scientist, 27 00:03:46,820 --> 00:03:52,370 particularly Jonathan Mahler, woman scientist, the pioneering woman. 28 00:03:52,370 --> 00:03:58,070 And we hope that by by looking at a particular network that emerged in the context of in the context of the 29 00:03:58,070 --> 00:04:04,610 spirit to enhance understanding of the practises of science and the spirit by examining the role of race, 30 00:04:04,610 --> 00:04:10,430 gender and indigenous knowledge from the colonies in the cross-fertilisation of ideas. 31 00:04:10,430 --> 00:04:19,160 So the broader impact of these debates later on, of course, which I will not be have time to explore, will be in reference to scientific humanism, 32 00:04:19,160 --> 00:04:23,120 which continues to be a significant part of the humanist movement in Britain today, 33 00:04:23,120 --> 00:04:32,860 and one which was instrumental in transforming India post independence and was upheld until recently as one of India's foundational principles. 34 00:04:32,860 --> 00:04:37,990 So what I when to come back to some of the themes of the key theme of this paper, 35 00:04:37,990 --> 00:04:48,820 which is genetics and how genetics sort of links up with this Typekit eugenics, with cytology with botany and later on with ecology. 36 00:04:48,820 --> 00:04:52,870 So genetics as a discipline was slow in coming of age even in the 1920s, 37 00:04:52,870 --> 00:05:00,950 as eminent woman societal geneticist Barbara McClintock was to note, genetics have not yet received general acceptance. 38 00:05:00,950 --> 00:05:05,270 Twenty one years have passed since the rediscovery of Mendel's principles of heredity. 39 00:05:05,270 --> 00:05:12,460 Genetic experiments guided by these principles expanded rapidly in the years between nineteen hundred and nineteen twenty one. 40 00:05:12,460 --> 00:05:18,430 The results of these studies provided a solid conceptual framework into which subsequent results would be fitted. 41 00:05:18,430 --> 00:05:26,170 Nevertheless, there was reluctance on the part of some professional biologists to accept the revolutionary concepts that were surfacing. 42 00:05:26,170 --> 00:05:28,900 So there is this intellectual of public service, 43 00:05:28,900 --> 00:05:37,900 and the discovery of cytogenetics produced three remarkable individuals whose lives crisscrossed a new and interesting ways in the 1930s, 40s and 50s. 44 00:05:37,900 --> 00:05:43,900 The pursuit of science to a European man at the peak of their careers in the biological sciences. 45 00:05:43,900 --> 00:05:50,080 And the third was an unknown Indian woman scientist of mixed race and so-called low-cost origins, 46 00:05:50,080 --> 00:05:54,550 equivocal encounters and discussions on biology, eugenics, philosophy and politics. 47 00:05:54,550 --> 00:05:59,290 I like the cosmopolitan nature of science and the empire of cosmopolitanism. 48 00:05:59,290 --> 00:06:04,480 That is surprising given the dominant racial ideas of the time and one that was lost as narrow, 49 00:06:04,480 --> 00:06:10,880 utilitarian perspectives of the national science began to dominate in India after independence. 50 00:06:10,880 --> 00:06:14,540 One writer has noted that the science of genetics had from its inception, 51 00:06:14,540 --> 00:06:20,570 being an international venture with collaborations and international networks of science across continents. 52 00:06:20,570 --> 00:06:26,480 So this paper then traces that trajectory probably to the lens of the relationship between the Indian woman Sitel Genesis's Ekere, 53 00:06:26,480 --> 00:06:36,610 Jonica amongst the population, Genesis's Gebbia as Holden and the man who discovered the chromosome seedlings of. 54 00:06:36,610 --> 00:06:43,150 So let me give you a sort of potted biography of each of these people, so I'm I was born into a poor family of northern lullaby. 55 00:06:43,150 --> 00:06:49,840 In 1897, a mother baby was a mixed race daughter of John Child Huntington of the Madras Civil Service. 56 00:06:49,840 --> 00:06:58,100 Her father, a Christian, was a stalwart of the local community who had risen to the position of a sub judge in the Territory High Court. 57 00:06:58,100 --> 00:07:03,140 He could, Johnny, she was then known how to schooling in Sacred Heart Girls High School and Tell Story, 58 00:07:03,140 --> 00:07:07,900 followed by a B.A. honours degree in botany from Queen Mary College Dress. 59 00:07:07,900 --> 00:07:15,430 Missionary dedication provided the way out, of course, embraces the restrictions the union between Krishna and Debbie, 60 00:07:15,430 --> 00:07:20,140 her mother and father, have been frowned upon by both sides of the racial divide. 61 00:07:20,140 --> 00:07:25,870 White peers, as the mixed races came to be known, was seen as impure by their political brethren, 62 00:07:25,870 --> 00:07:29,380 and marriage alliances with the children were hard to come by. 63 00:07:29,380 --> 00:07:34,270 It was in these circumstances that John McCain chose a life of scholarship for marriage. 64 00:07:34,270 --> 00:07:43,180 With it came geographical dislocation and an opportunity to move away from a constraining background in terms of gender, class and race. 65 00:07:43,180 --> 00:07:51,920 Her life and science had begun a marginal status as a woman and as a low cost mixed race Indian had was transformed in the process. 66 00:07:51,920 --> 00:07:56,510 It was my welcome to the lecture of the Women's Christian College Madras and early 1920s that 67 00:07:56,510 --> 00:08:00,920 she received a scholarship from Michigan University where she received an M.A. in 1945, 68 00:08:00,920 --> 00:08:09,120 returning again to complete Odyssey in 1991. Why did Michigan she worked with Harley Bartlett, professor of botany. 69 00:08:09,120 --> 00:08:17,130 What a broad spectrum of scientific interest from botany to the history of science and also inspire her later forays into botany. 70 00:08:17,130 --> 00:08:25,520 On the way back to India in 1931, she spent a year at the John Innes Institute. 71 00:08:25,520 --> 00:08:37,000 Where she walked with CD Darlington, and this was the this sort of signal, the start of a new friendship. 72 00:08:37,000 --> 00:08:41,860 So she was on her return to India in 1932, she returned soon after India 1932, 73 00:08:41,860 --> 00:08:47,800 she was appointed a professor of botany at the Maharashtra at the Maharaja College of Science in Trivandrum, 74 00:08:47,800 --> 00:08:51,910 followed by a five year stint of the Sugarcane Breeding Institute in Coimbatore, 75 00:08:51,910 --> 00:08:58,140 where she devoted herself to genetic studies contributing to the breeding of sugarcane. 76 00:08:58,140 --> 00:08:59,790 In nineteen thirty nine, 77 00:08:59,790 --> 00:09:06,870 she travelled to Edinburgh to take part in the International Congress of Genetics and was compelled to remain in Britain for the duration of the war. 78 00:09:06,870 --> 00:09:13,740 This photograph was taken when she was in England during the war period from 1940 to 1945. 79 00:09:13,740 --> 00:09:17,820 She was assistant psychologist to see the Darlington at the John Innes Institute, 80 00:09:17,820 --> 00:09:22,710 and it was here that she worked on the origin and evolution of cultivated plants, which became a classic, 81 00:09:22,710 --> 00:09:25,110 resulting in the chromosome atlas of cultivated plants, 82 00:09:25,110 --> 00:09:31,800 which you co-authored with Darlington and which became an important source for psychological work of economic plants of the world. 83 00:09:31,800 --> 00:09:38,820 And this photograph was taken when she joined John Anderson's when she joined the richest the Royal Horticultural Society, 84 00:09:38,820 --> 00:09:47,370 and was Ellie Hall in the late 1940s. And it's little known that she was the first female employee of the RSS. 85 00:09:47,370 --> 00:09:52,350 She returned to India in 1948, meeting Nehru on the plane and a career as a national scientists have gone by. 86 00:09:52,350 --> 00:09:57,520 1955, she was director of the Central Botanical Laboratory of the Government of India at Lucknow, 87 00:09:57,520 --> 00:09:59,910 and she was to become fellow of the Linnean Society of London, 88 00:09:59,910 --> 00:10:07,980 the Royal Geographical Society, the Asia Society of Bengal, the Royal Islamic Society in London, and the Indian Academy of Sciences. 89 00:10:07,980 --> 00:10:13,430 In fact, Jonathan Mann was one of the founding members of the academy and the first woman member. 90 00:10:13,430 --> 00:10:21,770 An honorary doctorate was bestowed on her in 1955 by the University of Michigan and one of her contemporaries, 91 00:10:21,770 --> 00:10:27,080 Subramaniam, who was the director of the Centre for Advanced Study in Madras and Botany, 92 00:10:27,080 --> 00:10:30,920 has written about her passion for plants, croplands, garden plants, plantation crops, 93 00:10:30,920 --> 00:10:38,400 medicinal crops and tribal plants he saw as an original thinker during epochal work on intergender hybrids such as Sacrum, 94 00:10:38,400 --> 00:10:46,100 Zero, Sacramental Sacrament, Merita and Spectrum of her pioneering work was in the cytogenetics of saccharin or fish and animals, 95 00:10:46,100 --> 00:10:51,260 sugarcane and into specific and intergender hybrids involving sugarcane and both closely 96 00:10:51,260 --> 00:10:57,590 related lot of grass genera and very distantly related ones such as bamboozled bamboo. 97 00:10:57,590 --> 00:11:04,610 Studies on chromosome numbers employed, as he noted, were directed to ascertaining the role of hybridisation and the evolution of flowering plants 98 00:11:04,610 --> 00:11:09,530 work that she had started the Darlington as a first salaried member of the auto chess. 99 00:11:09,530 --> 00:11:16,370 As I said, she undertook investigations on cochineal and its users and introducing Floyd Floyd. 100 00:11:16,370 --> 00:11:24,830 The focus will work on selection was very much part of the whole interest in genetics, 101 00:11:24,830 --> 00:11:35,090 as this time I'm continued after to return to India, where she worked on the General Solo named after our mentor champion Amanda Soria. 102 00:11:35,090 --> 00:11:40,940 She was very interested in the confidence of Chinese and Mulan with Indian Flora Stick Elements in the Northeast, 103 00:11:40,940 --> 00:11:47,890 and she believed this led to natural hybridisation between these and contributed greatly to species diversification. 104 00:11:47,890 --> 00:11:57,290 As Subramaniam noted, those cytology was a a welcome based genetics evolution, citing geography and ethno botany. 105 00:11:57,290 --> 00:12:04,870 So early professional career was closely associated with this chap, Darlington, as I said, and then I come to this biography, 106 00:12:04,870 --> 00:12:11,030 who his biographer had described as belonging to the Great School of British Genesis's evolutionists and biological 107 00:12:11,030 --> 00:12:18,410 statisticians produced by a country basking in the afterglow of eminent Victorians Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. 108 00:12:18,410 --> 00:12:22,940 On debates on what coined the term genetic psychological research at the John Innes, 109 00:12:22,940 --> 00:12:27,230 arguing for the central principle of mentalism inherited heterogeneity through breeding 110 00:12:27,230 --> 00:12:33,120 experiments similar to Edmund Wilson's expressions across the Atlantic and Columbia. 111 00:12:33,120 --> 00:12:39,900 But there were serious differences. Matson was rejecting the chromosomal theory of relativity and does not accept research of 112 00:12:39,900 --> 00:12:45,320 the gene in this that found exceptions to the chromosomal basis of genetics was encouraged. 113 00:12:45,320 --> 00:12:47,420 The Clintons always work on debates, and in fact, 114 00:12:47,420 --> 00:12:53,720 Newton was annoyed by the existence of more than two homologous chromosomes in the chromosome complement. 115 00:12:53,720 --> 00:12:57,470 His first article in Nature, which later became known as Darlington Rule, 116 00:12:57,470 --> 00:13:05,370 was that there was a negative correlation between the motility of the pipe only Floyd and that of the diploid from which it arose. 117 00:13:05,370 --> 00:13:08,790 But Darlington was moving away from Bateman's work in 1930, 118 00:13:08,790 --> 00:13:13,170 he began to make significant contributions to the understanding of the relationship of genetic 119 00:13:13,170 --> 00:13:18,900 crossing over the microscopically observed events that the chromosome passed through during meals. 120 00:13:18,900 --> 00:13:20,370 So as first psychological block, 121 00:13:20,370 --> 00:13:29,290 recent advances in cytology was a landmark in it to expose the dynamic qualities of chromosome behaviour and the role in genetics and selection. 122 00:13:29,290 --> 00:13:37,100 What was at stake for biology was common, notes one of his biographers, the hidden boundaries between psychology, genetics and evolutionary theory. 123 00:13:37,100 --> 00:13:40,430 Darlington was a psychologist interested in evolutionary theory. 124 00:13:40,430 --> 00:13:46,670 He never stepped out into the field, and many of his ideas, especially in the U.S., continue to be treated with caution. 125 00:13:46,670 --> 00:13:51,380 Later in his life, Darlington returned to the subject of history, becoming, as his biographer noted, 126 00:13:51,380 --> 00:13:58,530 one of the most fascinating and controversial exponents of the socio biological approach to human culture. 127 00:13:58,530 --> 00:14:01,980 So late in the 1930s, he was interested in the variety of human cultures. 128 00:14:01,980 --> 00:14:12,810 In 1933, he visited India for the first time on the invitation of Amal and the cost system and Tribes First Nation Amal and encouraged his interest. 129 00:14:12,810 --> 00:14:17,880 And he noted the scientific work of Sugarcane Breeding Institute, where Amal worked in positive terms, 130 00:14:17,880 --> 00:14:22,870 noting that the hybrids seemed likely to revolutionise sugarcane growing in India and elsewhere. 131 00:14:22,870 --> 00:14:28,240 In 1947, he visited India again, and he had begun reading on a variety of subjects in the history of different peoples, 132 00:14:28,240 --> 00:14:36,430 empires, religions and the behaviour of men. In 1960, Darlington, having returned to his interest in the origin and structure of society, 133 00:14:36,430 --> 00:14:41,650 Pastor John acouple information on cost in India and in particular, the distribution of criminal courts. 134 00:14:41,650 --> 00:14:50,590 He had moved on from the study of chromosomes to social genetics and to an interpretation of language class raised in society and in biological terms. 135 00:14:50,590 --> 00:14:51,910 So he became, of course, 136 00:14:51,910 --> 00:15:06,440 very much to the right of the eugenics movement and was very much interested in the application of biology to to his care and racial theories. 137 00:15:06,440 --> 00:15:09,890 So he'd always been interested in culture and society in 1927, 138 00:15:09,890 --> 00:15:14,750 you joined the Eugenics Society and the invitation letter to the society noted that I quote, 139 00:15:14,750 --> 00:15:20,330 it's widely appreciated amongst biologists in general that the neglect of biological and unethical knowledge and 140 00:15:20,330 --> 00:15:26,840 modern legislation may lead to incalculable damage in our own people and those of other civilised communities. 141 00:15:26,840 --> 00:15:34,460 In 1947, along with artificial whose it was windowless, just being taken down by Glenville and King's College, 142 00:15:34,460 --> 00:15:39,180 he co-founded Heredity, an international journal of genetics. 143 00:15:39,180 --> 00:15:45,830 Fish like Darlington and others of your generation, including Holden, was interested in the application of genetics to map as you genesis. 144 00:15:45,830 --> 00:15:52,990 They believe the genetics needed to become the causal framework. Not only but as the social movement as was. 145 00:15:52,990 --> 00:16:01,840 Forty years of the century, as much lot genetics was synonymous with eugenics between the wars that was still possible to be a scientist, 146 00:16:01,840 --> 00:16:08,680 a socialist, a meritocratic and the eugenicist. The most advanced mathematical methodologies employed in genetics were embraced 147 00:16:08,680 --> 00:16:13,150 in the 1930s by critics of the way in which ethical theory was being misused. 148 00:16:13,150 --> 00:16:17,980 LED by Lancelot Holden, Haldane and Lionel Penrose, each of them was in their own way, 149 00:16:17,980 --> 00:16:24,760 appalled by the crude class prejudices manifested by mainline genetics, so they were the left of genetics. 150 00:16:24,760 --> 00:16:29,350 What was ironic with these critics thought to produce a truly objective science of genetics, 151 00:16:29,350 --> 00:16:34,000 like whipping themselves methodologies created by the supporters of eugenics in Germany? 152 00:16:34,000 --> 00:16:43,280 Well, as we know, the programme was Bush's ultimate extreme. So the third person in our triumvirate is just holding. 153 00:16:43,280 --> 00:16:50,300 Let me give the first Weldon, professor of genetics at the University of London in seven, was at the forefront of these debates. 154 00:16:50,300 --> 00:16:53,450 It was considered he's considered one of the founders of population genetics, 155 00:16:53,450 --> 00:17:00,670 which was to become a major component of the modern synthesis, which in the sense of mind, mentalism and Darwinism. 156 00:17:00,670 --> 00:17:08,230 An influential contribution to the field was a 1924 article, the first of a series of mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. 157 00:17:08,230 --> 00:17:13,480 Holden also made significant contributions to biochemistry, physiology and human genetics. 158 00:17:13,480 --> 00:17:18,160 In 1932, he was selected. He was elected to be fellow of the Royal Society was outstanding. 159 00:17:18,160 --> 00:17:20,950 Contribution wasn't mathematical genetics. Where are you? 160 00:17:20,950 --> 00:17:27,580 Mathematically dealt with problems dealing with Darwinian variation and establish the relationship of Mendelian genetics or evolution? 161 00:17:27,580 --> 00:17:34,360 A lifelong Marxist who was critical of the Lampkin of some of the anti-communist eugenicists like E.W. McBride, 162 00:17:34,360 --> 00:17:42,910 a committed gender system selection vs. views like those of Darlington run counter to the egalitarian environmental emphasis of the last cosmology. 163 00:17:42,910 --> 00:17:44,980 The great Russian biologist, 164 00:17:44,980 --> 00:17:56,140 whose whose environmental systems were discredited by other biologists and which was strongly reminiscent of the modern thinking about a 1948, 165 00:17:56,140 --> 00:18:01,450 had become the official Soviet and had become official Soviet policy biology. 166 00:18:01,450 --> 00:18:08,830 So the relationship between Lysenko, Holden and Darlington is not so much part of our story, 167 00:18:08,830 --> 00:18:13,450 but that brought them to a broader great rift between them. 168 00:18:13,450 --> 00:18:21,040 Lysenko had denied Mendel in gymnastics, proposing his own genetics, which did not view the gene as a unit of morality, 169 00:18:21,040 --> 00:18:26,360 but rather held a Lampkin view that the hereditary traits of plants could be influenced by external conditions. 170 00:18:26,360 --> 00:18:31,300 And this was part of the sort of egalitarian communist sort of endeavour. 171 00:18:31,300 --> 00:18:36,460 Despite his own scientific theory, Lysenko had considerable success in increasing the yield of industrial problems such as rye, 172 00:18:36,460 --> 00:18:39,250 wheat, cotton, potato and sunflower. 173 00:18:39,250 --> 00:18:48,130 And by 1948, licences would start in the USSR as a fact and hold it as a communist in the late 1930s and a member of the Communist Party since 1942. 174 00:18:48,130 --> 00:18:53,890 The member of the executive committee since 1944 was initially sympathetic towards licenced schools arguments, 175 00:18:53,890 --> 00:18:57,490 arguing that the real content of the proletarian demand for quality is the demand for 176 00:18:57,490 --> 00:19:02,500 the abolition of any demand for quality beyond that necessary parcels and to absurdity. 177 00:19:02,500 --> 00:19:08,710 So you can see how much he was enmeshed in the eugenics movement as well as Holman notes, 178 00:19:08,710 --> 00:19:14,680 Lai centralism during the war and during and after the war and until the summer of 1948 pose little problem to the broader 179 00:19:14,680 --> 00:19:21,460 goals of the Scientific Left that a planned economy and that of science as a model and a vehicle for human needs. 180 00:19:21,460 --> 00:19:24,700 Another writer poll suggests that there may have been more or less engross in India, 181 00:19:24,700 --> 00:19:31,110 France and Brazil than in England, but in England, people were forced to choose between science and communism. 182 00:19:31,110 --> 00:19:36,750 Sydney Darlington, however, was vocal in his criticism of Ally Soyinka's arguing that a government which relied on the 183 00:19:36,750 --> 00:19:41,460 absence of inborn class and race differences in man as the basis of its political theory, 184 00:19:41,460 --> 00:19:47,280 was unnaturally happy about the science of genetics, which relies on the presence of such differences. 185 00:19:47,280 --> 00:19:55,470 Other critics, such as our officials, have condemned my central in the 1940s and Holden and Darlington fell out of a Holden's failure adequately 186 00:19:55,470 --> 00:20:02,460 to understand the threat posed by lots of coal and the stranglehold over Soviet science in Stalin's Russia, 187 00:20:02,460 --> 00:20:06,270 Mandela Genesis was exiled in its practitioners, punished. 188 00:20:06,270 --> 00:20:12,240 Many Marxist who had been sympathetic to the socialist experiment joined the anti-Soviet campaign, although as noted, 189 00:20:12,240 --> 00:20:16,890 holding those due to his Marxist allegiances showed a remarkable reluctance 190 00:20:16,890 --> 00:20:23,250 to Lysenko when Darlington and other Western janitors were openly critical. 191 00:20:23,250 --> 00:20:26,100 So here is here is this report, 192 00:20:26,100 --> 00:20:39,240 here is a whole Dane who had started the journal Heather Duffy with Fisher in 1947 as a Journal of the Genetics Society right now deciding what? 193 00:20:39,240 --> 00:20:44,640 What would you, what would you do with his future scientific career? 194 00:20:44,640 --> 00:20:49,350 So by the late 1940s, things were changing the face of overwhelming evidence in the lifecycle, 195 00:20:49,350 --> 00:20:53,880 Holden withdrew from the Communist Party activities before finally leaving it. 196 00:20:53,880 --> 00:21:03,720 It was the invasion of the Suez in 1956, however, that he himself credits with those leaving Britain for India. 197 00:21:03,720 --> 00:21:09,180 So he moves Holden also in 1947 in the Suez Crisis, denouncing Western imperialism. 198 00:21:09,180 --> 00:21:12,660 And he takes the Journal of Genetics with him, which he runs with his wife, Helen. 199 00:21:12,660 --> 00:21:17,010 So we're inviting John again while to contribute to it. 200 00:21:17,010 --> 00:21:20,670 So I'm exposed to encountered Holden in England through Darlington. 201 00:21:20,670 --> 00:21:32,160 While she was at the John Innes Institute for a while, she was at the John Adams Institute, probably about this time for the duration of the war. 202 00:21:32,160 --> 00:21:38,640 And she sent him an urgent message asking to borrow a microscope for psychological work which had her which, as it transpired, 203 00:21:38,640 --> 00:21:45,900 would not provide an academic relationship and friendship followed with meetings, letters and exchange of gifts over a long period. 204 00:21:45,900 --> 00:21:50,550 In 1925, Holden wrote to her at the Central Botanical Laboratory in Lucknow, 205 00:21:50,550 --> 00:21:57,090 thanking her for the gift of a lighter and more people on the subsistence economy of India, which she later published in this. 206 00:21:57,090 --> 00:22:03,120 In this pioneering volume in 1955, which was on how mind changed the face of Earth, 207 00:22:03,120 --> 00:22:09,270 which was the pulsar volume published by the University of Chicago. 208 00:22:09,270 --> 00:22:13,200 He questioned her assertion that the mother is all upper class Brahmins in India with a 209 00:22:13,200 --> 00:22:18,060 pure line reference to the adjoined and quarries in the population genetics of India, 210 00:22:18,060 --> 00:22:22,660 which was an interest all three of them shared after Holden's arrival in India. 211 00:22:22,660 --> 00:22:27,600 I think I've got a picture of them in India, if I can. 212 00:22:27,600 --> 00:22:33,810 There was a joint visit with the students in 1961 that included a visit to Allahabad at Amal's invitation, 213 00:22:33,810 --> 00:22:43,160 where she showed him our laboratory and several slides of chromosomes of Indian plant species and took the troupe on a fine excursion. 214 00:22:43,160 --> 00:22:50,000 Into the local countryside outside of Lubbock, we hold it against the advice of a local Brahmin jumped into the River Ganges, 215 00:22:50,000 --> 00:22:57,410 which was supposed to contain the freshwater crocodile and how to swim amongst recorded impressions of the visit letters of Darlington. 216 00:22:57,410 --> 00:23:03,020 I wish I'd known on, and she's referential a colleague would return to India and continue on theological research. 217 00:23:03,020 --> 00:23:08,840 She would make a good partner for her son, JB's, who, by the way, got his Indian citizenship the other day. 218 00:23:08,840 --> 00:23:13,580 I wonder if you also taught him when he visited Alabama. I drove him in Helena, 219 00:23:13,580 --> 00:23:20,720 which within hours and he was very respectful in front of the Shoval temple and even more respectful when we came to the shrine. 220 00:23:20,720 --> 00:23:26,270 The temple dedicated to the wife of Shiva. I like ladies, you said I'm seeing me standing rather aloof. 221 00:23:26,270 --> 00:23:30,320 He turned around and chided me, saying, You're not even though we are a Buddhist Johnny. 222 00:23:30,320 --> 00:23:35,660 Then the two of them and a student of yours waded through the filth of the Temple Alley in search of a beetle shock to chew upon. 223 00:23:35,660 --> 00:23:40,160 I had a difficult time trying to keep the Temple Bulls from charging dubious garlands, 224 00:23:40,160 --> 00:23:44,450 the one the priest gave him at the Temple of Shiva, which were not. 225 00:23:44,450 --> 00:23:48,970 Quote close. However, the relationship between Darlington and Holden soured, 226 00:23:48,970 --> 00:23:55,720 the relationship between a modern Holden was often affected by the animosity as a reflection of the lack of interest in an anthropologist. 227 00:23:55,720 --> 00:24:02,140 Holden was critical of the new gentleman completely, and its crude racial typology is edited by Robert Wood, 228 00:24:02,140 --> 00:24:07,000 who had Ruggles creates a friend of Darlington on its editorial board, 229 00:24:07,000 --> 00:24:13,960 noting in a letter to a small vote, I should avoid him in correspondence with any journal which which honour Gates is connected. 230 00:24:13,960 --> 00:24:20,290 I'm only surprised that it does not have to do Darlington amongst its editorial board in a more humorous vein, he added. 231 00:24:20,290 --> 00:24:29,770 Quote an editor called Garriga Misclassified Men by their hair in Mangold's It Straight and Negroes, Canadian publications and fat. 232 00:24:29,770 --> 00:24:37,710 It's clear that you send a copy of this letter to Darlington that is also found in the papers and the Baldwin. 233 00:24:37,710 --> 00:24:42,180 Holden became an Indian citizen in 1964, disillusioned by British politics. 234 00:24:42,180 --> 00:24:46,020 He was attracted by the Herald's Neutral East Policy Holden and SPI-B, 235 00:24:46,020 --> 00:24:53,000 but both offered jobs in 1957 to the Indian Statistical Institute to the point of being Holden was close to retirement from UCL. 236 00:24:53,000 --> 00:24:58,070 He, like Darlington, always had a deep interest in Indian history, religions, languages and cultures, 237 00:24:58,070 --> 00:25:04,040 and would often quote passages in Indian languages during lectures whose first visit to India had been in 1917, 238 00:25:04,040 --> 00:25:10,340 when he was recovering from wounds received in Mesopotamia and in 1980 he formed a resolution to the time. 239 00:25:10,340 --> 00:25:18,290 Once we have achieved independence, the holding papers provide evidence of Holden's long interest in Indian politics and his association with India. 240 00:25:18,290 --> 00:25:22,850 The Indian Relief Committee and the Indian Science Congress at the cusp of independence. 241 00:25:22,850 --> 00:25:30,740 Those letters, acquaintance of VK Christian M.A. from as early as 1943, Holden also became a member of Indian Relief Committee in 1943. 242 00:25:30,740 --> 00:25:38,690 Networking events Indian academics, including PC Mohan, the Indian Statistical Institute, with whom we would later work with in Calcutta. 243 00:25:38,690 --> 00:25:44,540 It was Monrovia's who invited Holden to visit him in India and 46. He was unable to make the journey there. 244 00:25:44,540 --> 00:25:47,630 But of course, as we know, he went later. 245 00:25:47,630 --> 00:25:55,490 He finally visited India in 1951, was invited to dinner with a selection of politicians and academics, including Nehru A. and both. 246 00:25:55,490 --> 00:26:01,370 Over the next five years before moving to India, he was in communication with a number of Indian academics and politicians, 247 00:26:01,370 --> 00:26:04,070 including all narasimhan of the sugarcane, including the student. 248 00:26:04,070 --> 00:26:10,670 SD Roy-Chowdhury, lecturer himself to the university, made Nazar and SS Mogga writing to. 249 00:26:10,670 --> 00:26:17,490 Butnow the funding of the laboratory of Roy, who made a plea that the study of Indian species was invaluable as their psychological behaviour. 250 00:26:17,490 --> 00:26:26,330 No close parallel in Europe or North America. He was invited to conferences, asked for advice and some papers for feedback. 251 00:26:26,330 --> 00:26:33,630 In 1953, horror of the National Institute of Sciences of India thanked him for the best Indian dinner yet in London since left India Hill, 252 00:26:33,630 --> 00:26:37,250 even before he left, England permanently got a taste for Indian food. 253 00:26:37,250 --> 00:26:43,430 This was vastly different from Darlington, whose only forays into Indian food you described as in digestible. 254 00:26:43,430 --> 00:26:49,490 On his arrival in India, Holden became a research associate of the Indian Statistical Institute of 1761. 255 00:26:49,490 --> 00:26:57,050 This is a period well covered in the secondary literature of the institute. He helped to set up units in the research of genetics and palaeontology. 256 00:26:57,050 --> 00:27:02,570 Later, he moved to a nation where the chief minister oversaw Boltzmann Institute for Genetics and Biometrics, 257 00:27:02,570 --> 00:27:07,730 where he played an important role in strengthening international scientific relationships. 258 00:27:07,730 --> 00:27:12,470 And then you're holding saw the Darwinian Darwinian theory of evolution from a fresh perspective, 259 00:27:12,470 --> 00:27:16,430 noting that Hinduism did not distinguish them to distinguish between humans and other animals. 260 00:27:16,430 --> 00:27:20,480 Unlike in Christian theology, a moral to Darlington in 1960, 261 00:27:20,480 --> 00:27:24,830 Holden was very much in the papers lately over the false he undertook personally recently. 262 00:27:24,830 --> 00:27:29,990 He comes, comes to scientific meetings and pyjamas and wears notice I loincloth at all. 263 00:27:29,990 --> 00:27:34,620 She was beaten leaves while Helen smokes beads and sips Chen quarters. 264 00:27:34,620 --> 00:27:39,310 She included with the school newspaper cuttings with a letter showing a picture of Holden sitting down reading with the caption, 265 00:27:39,310 --> 00:27:45,510 Professor JibJab is holding and walking a thousand Border Patrol Calcutta on the third day of his fast. 266 00:27:45,510 --> 00:27:51,600 Quote his left ankle ankle isn't lost as a result of an injury sustained during his recent visit to the Long Island floods Congress, 267 00:27:51,600 --> 00:27:59,220 the Statesman photos The headlines noted that Holden's quote fast and just the to Calcutta January 20th. 268 00:27:59,220 --> 00:28:03,810 Professor JB is holding. The British scientist continued his forecast for the fourth day today in protest 269 00:28:03,810 --> 00:28:07,620 against what he calls just currency of the United States Information Service here, 270 00:28:07,620 --> 00:28:13,320 says PTI. Clearly, Holden was closing miles while sensational in India, though, 271 00:28:13,320 --> 00:28:19,850 equip Auckland counties of St. John's apologies neglected story of the history of science, though no less remarkable for the waste. 272 00:28:19,850 --> 00:28:26,730 Transcript gender, race and national boundaries Through the interactions, meetings and discussions over a 50 year period, 273 00:28:26,730 --> 00:28:29,520 the three individuals showed a strong friendship and respect for each other. 274 00:28:29,520 --> 00:28:34,980 Scientific endeavours highlighting the cosmopolitan nature of science at the end of the hold in India 275 00:28:34,980 --> 00:28:42,690 became the new centre as we to the site of a walk to Calcutta in 1957 and Bhubaneshwar in 1960. 276 00:28:42,690 --> 00:28:48,570 Formal notwithstanding the many hurdles placed on how by the side of the patriarchy, she criss crossed continents, 277 00:28:48,570 --> 00:28:54,720 basing herself in India from the 1930s, challenging the narrow, utilitarian constraints of the national side. 278 00:28:54,720 --> 00:28:59,410 Opening the doors to New Horizons for university research in the pursuit of cytogenetics, 279 00:28:59,410 --> 00:29:03,810 botany and through institutional leadership with regard to the Botanical Survey of India, 280 00:29:03,810 --> 00:29:08,820 where she later headed for Darlington as patronage of John Campbell. 281 00:29:08,820 --> 00:29:10,560 Imprudent Interest in India, 282 00:29:10,560 --> 00:29:17,370 which was also revived in the 1960s as he moved on from the study of chromosomes to social genetics and to an interpretation of language, 283 00:29:17,370 --> 00:29:20,210 class, race and society in biology. 284 00:29:20,210 --> 00:29:26,000 Their relationship and their discussions, their prejudices are documented in their letters to each other and to other scientists, 285 00:29:26,000 --> 00:29:35,960 indicating a fascinating period in the history of science. I now move to a section where I look at the impact of these networks and the fact 286 00:29:35,960 --> 00:29:45,090 that John Kimmel was still very much operating within a patriarchy of science. 287 00:29:45,090 --> 00:29:49,440 So, Miles, range of academic contacts and colleagues extended round the world, 288 00:29:49,440 --> 00:29:55,320 extensive scientific correspondence, as I said, extended to scientists and academics as he all day Newton Bob, 289 00:29:55,320 --> 00:30:01,920 a professor of botany at the University of Sydney, who send us students constant constantly, oddly later to become a lecturer in botany in Adelaide. 290 00:30:01,920 --> 00:30:09,690 To work with that was pure colour. The Hungarian jellis assistant professor of cytogenetics at the Institute of Cancer Research London. 291 00:30:09,690 --> 00:30:15,540 Several Edinburgh and Cubist botanists such as Gilbert Physical and Polynesians, Ruggles Gates and Eileen McFall and Ruggles Gates, 292 00:30:15,540 --> 00:30:21,180 was married to Marie Stopes Gauguin and who divorced him on grounds of emergency. 293 00:30:21,180 --> 00:30:23,820 She kept a copious correspondence with many of these, 294 00:30:23,820 --> 00:30:29,940 but few about letters and collections of survived Indian scientific friends included eminent agricultural scientists such as MSC, 295 00:30:29,940 --> 00:30:35,000 11.10am, BP, Paul Genesis and plant breeder and director of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 296 00:30:35,000 --> 00:30:41,880 She valued a personal friendships, with many of them called Swaminathan and Barlow good friends to old friend Paul Coller. 297 00:30:41,880 --> 00:30:44,160 Her correspondence includes a reference to his daughter Crystal, 298 00:30:44,160 --> 00:30:51,990 an academic ideas and experience of translocation and geographic displacement provided opportunities for building international friendships. 299 00:30:51,990 --> 00:30:56,910 And she also successfully as a respected female scientist in many public institutions. 300 00:30:56,910 --> 00:31:01,710 Normally, the preserve of men so scientific and sometimes highly personal correspondence 301 00:31:01,710 --> 00:31:05,370 between Darlington and I'm always preserving the modern library in Oxford and 302 00:31:05,370 --> 00:31:08,850 provides a remarkable insight into the nature of a very particular scientific 303 00:31:08,850 --> 00:31:13,640 relationship that spanned different continents and across gender and racial barriers. 304 00:31:13,640 --> 00:31:20,010 Her only letters to Darlington reveal an independent thinking young woman scientist with a great deal of self-respect and self-esteem. 305 00:31:20,010 --> 00:31:26,220 When she joined the John Innes in 1931, she was joining one of the Britain's most vibrant biological communities. 306 00:31:26,220 --> 00:31:30,060 It had become, as I said, to Britain's Premier Institute for Genetic Research, 307 00:31:30,060 --> 00:31:36,360 contributing fundamental insights into the chromosomal basis of heritage. And how did did he and his role in evolution? 308 00:31:36,360 --> 00:31:41,790 And when he wrote his masterpiece, it had come on recent advances in psychology, 309 00:31:41,790 --> 00:31:47,220 which was also an attack on Lamarck, an inheritance it had placed him firmly in the new Darwinian time. 310 00:31:47,220 --> 00:31:52,860 It was have become a major force reckoned with. So when she joined him, yeah, he had 15 people working under him. 311 00:31:52,860 --> 00:31:58,770 He had created the largest school of its kind in the world, and one of these researchers was John Ngema. 312 00:31:58,770 --> 00:32:05,880 On May 1931, she wrote an introductory letter to him, noting that she was anxious to do the psychology of a trip. 313 00:32:05,880 --> 00:32:12,660 Lloyd eggplant portals. By the end of the year, she was working on second sorghum hybrids, noting eloquently quote, 314 00:32:12,660 --> 00:32:17,430 There is a terrific amount of variation in the F1 and some of the dwarfs and painful look as 315 00:32:17,430 --> 00:32:22,530 though they are aching to disclose something psychologically and genetically quote close. 316 00:32:22,530 --> 00:32:25,860 So Darlington was typical of the scientific mantles of spirit and that an extending as 317 00:32:25,860 --> 00:32:29,610 large as two female employees under me often found intimate relationships with them, 318 00:32:29,610 --> 00:32:33,190 if only briefly, John, to give us a prove no exception, 319 00:32:33,190 --> 00:32:38,080 and in three of letters written to him in 1934, which indicates our emotional involvement with him. 320 00:32:38,080 --> 00:32:43,830 Darlington Diaries record his lunches at McCain Jonathan Chelsea in 1925 with crumpets and curry. 321 00:32:43,830 --> 00:32:50,340 By 1935, the account was over and later moved on, marrying the student Margaret Up Court in 1947. 322 00:32:50,340 --> 00:32:55,920 This was only to be a brief, passionate instance, but the relationship was one that was dominate a man's life. 323 00:32:55,920 --> 00:33:00,720 As noted by a very small ultra of the progressive attitude in some male scientific mentors of women, 324 00:33:00,720 --> 00:33:05,220 scientists often related some form of emotional involvement, leading to collaborative work. 325 00:33:05,220 --> 00:33:13,230 Women scientists tend to follow this route rather than take on the precarious position of songs that result in the absence of a male mentor. 326 00:33:13,230 --> 00:33:15,450 All the letters to Darlington followed, this time from India, 327 00:33:15,450 --> 00:33:21,060 where she had written in 1932 and from the imperial sugarcane of student Coimbatore, which was looking 1934. 328 00:33:21,060 --> 00:33:26,670 I shall try to accomplish something in sacramental mythology so as to get an open sesame to the USSR. 329 00:33:26,670 --> 00:33:30,360 My new microscope arrived last week a light like spinal column. 330 00:33:30,360 --> 00:33:35,840 I have fixed enough material to keep me engaged for three years, which was suddenly Russian. 331 00:33:35,840 --> 00:33:41,620 Genetics and psychological studies were highly rated before the Lysenko affair in 1938, 332 00:33:41,620 --> 00:33:46,860 she wrote to his new wife, Margaret, also a botanist and a former student, on a new paper. 333 00:33:46,860 --> 00:33:54,480 I'm using the term cloudy, as suggested by City of Calcutta, to discuss Trueplay idea within the poly ployed series. 334 00:33:54,480 --> 00:34:00,900 I should, however, wish to have a school acceptance of the meaning before I do so with secondary astrology too. 335 00:34:00,900 --> 00:34:06,900 I would like to send this note current science, which which is India's nature when you send it back. 336 00:34:06,900 --> 00:34:13,140 Despite how to walk in the field, Amol faced several hurdles in the mail scientific establishment in India and in Britain, 337 00:34:13,140 --> 00:34:19,980 and even from Darlington itself, and this correspondence is very indicative of it, which I've got on the slide here for you. 338 00:34:19,980 --> 00:34:25,090 In one letter in August 1938, she notes of the visit of Ruggles Gates to Coimbatore. 339 00:34:25,090 --> 00:34:31,750 It has taken some several long months time to do the harm that the gates did, the cause of a simple death spend in Guam at all. 340 00:34:31,750 --> 00:34:35,350 Mr. Venkatraman was completely taken in by the professor's keen interest in 341 00:34:35,350 --> 00:34:40,240 the work done incorporate all his fault information and his generous manner, 342 00:34:40,240 --> 00:34:46,570 hence the doubt expressed not to me, but to make drama about the validity of the Sarabjit across stock index funds. 343 00:34:46,570 --> 00:34:54,730 Brain and my no true nature was not set up, sent up to the director of Agriculture with the necessary permission to publish it outside India or close. 344 00:34:54,730 --> 00:35:03,220 So here she is, talking about this excellent paper she had submitted to Nature, which was being held up by the head of the Coimbatore Institute, 345 00:35:03,220 --> 00:35:11,020 a Brahmin, Venkatraman, who had listened to Ruggles Gates and they both doubted the validity of her research. 346 00:35:11,020 --> 00:35:17,950 So she writes again, I very nearly decided to leave the station as a result of all this, and life became very complicated. 347 00:35:17,950 --> 00:35:22,600 However, I refused to be repeated. I'm glad to report the bank dramas that last commenced the process. 348 00:35:22,600 --> 00:35:28,090 Genuine hotels The Alternator Nature was finally published in 1938. 349 00:35:28,090 --> 00:35:34,570 The same letter went on to say, I wonder where I shall be, when I should be able to attend the Genitive Congress next year. 350 00:35:34,570 --> 00:35:41,480 My five year contract with the Imperial Council for Agricultural Research ends in May 1939. 351 00:35:41,480 --> 00:35:51,170 So here is a line patrolman who was not able to blocking the walk of John Campbell, Darlington was also not above Dominic. 352 00:35:51,170 --> 00:35:58,130 Jonathan was left with faint praise and this is what you see when John Russell, director of The Wrath of the Experimental Station, 353 00:35:58,130 --> 00:36:05,580 wrote to him on the 10th of May 1937, noting that he had met her in Coimbatore and enquiring Could you kindly tell me whether walks him sound, 354 00:36:05,580 --> 00:36:10,220 whether it's simply the nature of a student's exercise or can be dignified with the title of such, 355 00:36:10,220 --> 00:36:17,030 Darlington supply was indicative of the lack of support and jealousy that a male routinely preys on the male scientific establishment. 356 00:36:17,030 --> 00:36:23,330 The question of Jonathan Ball seems to be I got to be part of a larger problem of practitioners of psychology in India are very numerous, 357 00:36:23,330 --> 00:36:26,600 but psychological walkabout standing interests are not. 358 00:36:26,600 --> 00:36:32,750 The reason for this seems to be that Indians going for psychology because they think it is a matter of technique and needs no thought otherwise. 359 00:36:32,750 --> 00:36:36,050 But psychology has begun to require a great deal of thought during the last few years. 360 00:36:36,050 --> 00:36:41,870 The job hasn't turned out to be what they thought it was. Therefore, when I say John again, all of this sounds a little better than anyone else. 361 00:36:41,870 --> 00:36:44,150 I do not need to bear lost compliments. 362 00:36:44,150 --> 00:36:49,340 I think she is doing sound work and will continue to do so for some time just because a great deal of elementary 363 00:36:49,340 --> 00:36:54,530 exploration of this field is necessary and she cannot fail to be of value to the genesis of working with others. 364 00:36:54,530 --> 00:36:57,470 So that is damning with faint praise. You further noted, 365 00:36:57,470 --> 00:37:00,770 I think it's a great pity the numbers of Indians come to this country to take the issue degrees 366 00:37:00,770 --> 00:37:05,600 in psychology just because they think it's an easy subject and having obtained their PhDs, 367 00:37:05,600 --> 00:37:13,190 which never failed to do so, return to secular rebels in India. We refuse to take such people have this perception of our mobile mental. 368 00:37:13,190 --> 00:37:16,680 It be said to be part of a racialised worldview held by men, men such as Darlington, 369 00:37:16,680 --> 00:37:23,760 the list, the skewed nature of science at this time, to which we can now turn. 370 00:37:23,760 --> 00:37:31,260 So we know some come to the my last section of the paper, which is on eugenics and race in the mid-20th century, 371 00:37:31,260 --> 00:37:35,220 so the mid-20th century, then eugenics was a popular topic in fiction and non-fiction. 372 00:37:35,220 --> 00:37:39,620 Plant breeders called science fiction authors and evolutionary biologists wrote about it. 373 00:37:39,620 --> 00:37:40,200 Darlington, 374 00:37:40,200 --> 00:37:48,150 Amal and Holden were all interested in eugenics in the 1930s and its study of the practise of selective breeding as applied to human beings. 375 00:37:48,150 --> 00:37:53,370 Amal joined the Eugenics Society in 1931 and always retained an interest in Jennings. 376 00:37:53,370 --> 00:37:57,810 She had willingly obliged Darlington in this collection on Aboriginal racism India 377 00:37:57,810 --> 00:38:01,800 providing ethnographic details of tribes and cultures in South India for the 1930s, 378 00:38:01,800 --> 00:38:08,100 well into the 1970s. Does it also become an overlapping interest of all, as she had become interested in medicinal plants? 379 00:38:08,100 --> 00:38:14,370 In 1961, she wrote a post with three more books by Majumdar. You will find blood groups, of course, on one. 380 00:38:14,370 --> 00:38:19,320 Darlington, as we have seen it, work with Artificial, one of the founders of Modern Evolutionary Synthesis, who study. 381 00:38:19,320 --> 00:38:25,110 And here's a picture I can give you of artificial, one of the founders of modern evolutionary synthesis, 382 00:38:25,110 --> 00:38:30,760 who studies Watson's definitive statement of the mathematical basis of natural selection fishers work on 383 00:38:30,760 --> 00:38:35,910 mathematical gymnastics ends with a long discussion of the problem of deceased fertility in the upper classes, 384 00:38:35,910 --> 00:38:41,580 revealing the author's eugenic opinions of how to promote the breeding of favoured members of society and restrict others. 385 00:38:41,580 --> 00:38:46,500 It's a telling reminder of how eugenics was often seamlessly combined with other perfectly valid scientific ideas. 386 00:38:46,500 --> 00:38:55,500 Darlington Trilogy of Books, Genetics and Man 1964 Evolution of Modern Society in 1969, the little universal by 1978, 387 00:38:55,500 --> 00:39:01,780 together integrated as eugenicist views and showed how little they had changed over a period of 15 years. 388 00:39:01,780 --> 00:39:05,650 His first book was more hardline than the others, 389 00:39:05,650 --> 00:39:13,200 but even the last book Powerful Anti Abortion for Mothers and differential taxation to encourage certain parts of society to reproduce. 390 00:39:13,200 --> 00:39:19,820 Dubious hold holding was not far behind. As the foremost populariser of science on the day, his books aim to predict the scientific future. 391 00:39:19,820 --> 00:39:26,440 Its ideas were highly influential to the public and indeed many of the ideas in Huxley's Brave New World were directly to the. 392 00:39:26,440 --> 00:39:27,100 In the future, 393 00:39:27,100 --> 00:39:35,320 Bolger Holden stated the view that a moderate level of voluntary eugenics is as sudden as Wall Street turned into a human form is unlikely. 394 00:39:35,320 --> 00:39:42,620 The link between monoculture and biology had captured the minds of both hold in the letter, inviting Dalton to join the Unigene society. 395 00:39:42,620 --> 00:39:50,350 As I said, 19 percent signed by Huxley, Fisher and McBride, Darlington had made connexions between the breeding of plants and that of men. 396 00:39:50,350 --> 00:39:57,400 And as all your travels to India with Jonathan 1930s took on new meaning as you began reading on the history of Andrew on history, 397 00:39:57,400 --> 00:40:06,160 language in archaeology, cost fascination and the subdivision of races, as I said into smaller doctor groups govern their racial evolution form. 398 00:40:06,160 --> 00:40:09,160 For him, man's intellectual and cultural evolution have led not to. 399 00:40:09,160 --> 00:40:13,690 The absence of race is found in other species, but a special character in these races, 400 00:40:13,690 --> 00:40:18,280 resulting from the unique product of artificial and natural selection. 401 00:40:18,280 --> 00:40:25,360 The slippage between race and culture reflected most of the force Darwinian evolution hold in it also being part of the eugenics movement. 402 00:40:25,360 --> 00:40:31,570 As I said, the six in 1932, the inequality of man had argued with regard to physical characteristics. 403 00:40:31,570 --> 00:40:33,700 Quote Men are not born equal. 404 00:40:33,700 --> 00:40:39,340 Father, you stated that eugenics is at present that I quote the only possible way of improving the innate characters of man. 405 00:40:39,340 --> 00:40:45,720 The progress of biology in the next century will lead to the recognition of the innate inequality of maths. 406 00:40:45,720 --> 00:40:49,530 Holden also maintains an interest in difference, even in the 1950s 60s, 407 00:40:49,530 --> 00:40:57,960 pushing for quantitative anthropology in India and commenting on the work of Throne Maraj, an Indian anthropologist. 408 00:40:57,960 --> 00:41:01,830 I quote Since you saw him, Norman Rogers revolutionised indigenous policy. 409 00:41:01,830 --> 00:41:07,230 He has got good evidence that the Henry pin of the year is widely suspected for 50 years. 410 00:41:07,230 --> 00:41:15,150 Its frequency is about six percent and entrepreneurship 20 percent in West Bengal, 37 percent in Bengal, 37 percent in Ceylon. 411 00:41:15,150 --> 00:41:24,810 It's a much better character than blood groups. He's got plenty more human results, but that's but that is enough to be going on with photos. 412 00:41:24,810 --> 00:41:30,330 Interestingly, as I said, hold it at showing us less wing tendencies by ending is also welcomed by noting that in future, 413 00:41:30,330 --> 00:41:34,800 mankind may be divided into costs like Hindus or termites. 414 00:41:34,800 --> 00:41:41,700 But in this time, that recognition of innate policy would lead not to less, but a greater equality of opportunity. 415 00:41:41,700 --> 00:41:44,730 In many ways, one can argue that as the 1940s progressed, 416 00:41:44,730 --> 00:41:51,650 Darlington went to the right of the eugenics movement while holding much to the left in UNESCO's. 417 00:41:51,650 --> 00:41:59,630 And this is where I end with Darlington and in in the unicycle meeting in 1951. 418 00:41:59,630 --> 00:42:06,230 The statement of race following the political climate at the end of Nazi Germany denied any relationship between culture and genes, 419 00:42:06,230 --> 00:42:07,970 emphasising genetic dynamism, 420 00:42:07,970 --> 00:42:15,440 rendering the concept of race scientifically meaningless and rejecting the notions that race is defined in mental capacity. 421 00:42:15,440 --> 00:42:20,240 Or that there was a hierarchy of races and dangers for miscegenation. 422 00:42:20,240 --> 00:42:25,430 The UNESCO's statement was recommended by Julian Assange as Holden and other eminent scientists, 423 00:42:25,430 --> 00:42:31,190 Darlington could not accept this view being of the firm belief that different races could never arise in similar environments, 424 00:42:31,190 --> 00:42:36,470 and that groups defined innate capacities claim intelligence varied amongst races. 425 00:42:36,470 --> 00:42:41,990 But trying to prove that races do not define these respects, we do not. We do no service to mankind. 426 00:42:41,990 --> 00:42:44,810 We conceal the great problems which confronts mankind, 427 00:42:44,810 --> 00:42:52,070 namely how to use the gifts and talents of each race for the benefit of all races for everyone and all and use the same. 428 00:42:52,070 --> 00:42:56,510 How should it profit us to work together and what an empty world it would be? 429 00:42:56,510 --> 00:42:59,150 So you get these very interesting statements. 430 00:42:59,150 --> 00:43:10,220 In 1950, the two statements that emerged one the biology biological factor of race and is a myth and should be distinguished as a social construct, 431 00:43:10,220 --> 00:43:18,980 which was the main statement in 1950 and which they thought was hijacked by social scientists under the agency of Ashley Montagu. 432 00:43:18,980 --> 00:43:28,850 And then in 1951, you get the scientists producing a sort of supplementary version and that sort of tells you how 433 00:43:28,850 --> 00:43:37,700 eugenics was still alive and kicking even in the 1950s under the guise of an anti-racist science. 434 00:43:37,700 --> 00:43:44,000 And there's been some very excellent work written on it. But the fact that there was so much slippage between race, culture, 435 00:43:44,000 --> 00:43:53,350 ethnicity is still very much and how ethnicity is used as a euphemism for race is something that we can discuss, perhaps in the discussion. 436 00:43:53,350 --> 00:43:59,260 And here in this particular quote, you can see what you can see, 437 00:43:59,260 --> 00:44:05,080 the argument that raises determined by biological heritage gave this is the statement, 438 00:44:05,080 --> 00:44:12,280 the additional statement in 1991 by design from particular parents and thus cannot be used to describe groups whose association is political, 439 00:44:12,280 --> 00:44:16,600 national, religious or gender, community of language or to other cultural or social factors. 440 00:44:16,600 --> 00:44:18,820 And these are not biologically inherited. 441 00:44:18,820 --> 00:44:28,630 So the scientists here will continue to hold on to the idea that race was quite important for them as as a construct, 442 00:44:28,630 --> 00:44:36,730 and they did not as a biological fact. They could. They could not just leave it as a social construct. 443 00:44:36,730 --> 00:44:43,720 So it can be argued that the pervasiveness of eugenic ideas, eugenic ideas even in the 1950s and 30s, 444 00:44:43,720 --> 00:44:49,570 40s and even early in the 1950s would have lasted longer had it not been for Nazi Germany, 445 00:44:49,570 --> 00:44:54,440 and the fact that post-war human genetics distanced itself from Nazi race based policies. 446 00:44:54,440 --> 00:44:58,330 Forward thinking scientists, including Holden Penrose Huxley, with a notable exception, 447 00:44:58,330 --> 00:45:03,890 exception of Darlington, use modern evolutionary biology and genetics to combat racism in us. 448 00:45:03,890 --> 00:45:07,850 This group, Kelly included Kim, also stem from a published welcome correspondence. 449 00:45:07,850 --> 00:45:11,990 Darlington, unfortunately, had somewhat stubbornly refused to change his ideas. 450 00:45:11,990 --> 00:45:18,740 The seven book page book Evolution of Modern Society Detailed is complete philosophy of biological determinism 451 00:45:18,740 --> 00:45:25,460 and was received by the scientific community would shock some reviewers called abuse in a scandalous. 452 00:45:25,460 --> 00:45:27,710 With the arrival of Watson in Cambridge in 1952, 453 00:45:27,710 --> 00:45:34,280 molecular genetics had taken over Darlington Science and a new trend in genetics and evolutionary biology had come to dominate. 454 00:45:34,280 --> 00:45:40,560 By 1975, many of Darlington scholars, including Fisher, Holden and Huxley, advanced on old and died at the age of 22. 455 00:45:40,560 --> 00:45:46,070 Consent within Asia, India, Amal and Darlington soldiered on until the nineteen eighties, 456 00:45:46,070 --> 00:45:51,950 maintaining their friendship until darling son's death in 1981, followed by a mile in 1984. 457 00:45:51,950 --> 00:45:58,730 Their parts had gradually diverged, while Darlington continued to perpetuate his views that some people in society were more important than others. 458 00:45:58,730 --> 00:46:03,650 Amal had written to entrust national botany of tribal communities in India and for conservation, 459 00:46:03,650 --> 00:46:06,890 supporting a project on saving the Sun finally in India. 460 00:46:06,890 --> 00:46:11,780 Steering clear of the politics of both Holden and Darlington models to continue our pursuit of empirical science. 461 00:46:11,780 --> 00:46:17,240 The laboratory mother of Madras until her death until her death. 462 00:46:17,240 --> 00:46:21,545 So I'll stop there and I'm open to questions.