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But the topics I've chosen to pick out as not perhaps haven't been covered as fully as one might have wanted in this conference.

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Well, proliferation space and terrorism. And I'll just give a few slides on each of those.

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First of all, proliferation. I just that's fistful of definitions.

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And I think it's fairly obvious. And the proliferation of the numbers which we've seen represented also by that nice back

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that seems to have presented for us out of the 190 member states of the United Nations,

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only a small number are not in principle committed to non-proliferation.

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And the ones that are not, in a sense that non-proliferation committed are the new first of all, the nuclear weapon states defined in the NPT.

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Secondly, nuclear armed states, which everybody knows have nuclear weapons,

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even if they haven't formally announced it, and that's Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea.

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And then a larger but ill defined number of countries which have either have taken or have been accused

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of taking steps towards developing a national nuclear weapon capability and in in alphabetical order.

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But no indication of what their present status that is included Egypt, Iran, Iraq,

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Kazakhstan and other other two countries in the former Soviet Union, Libya and South Africa, Sweden and Taiwan.

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And in most cases by now,

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most of those countries have agreed to discontinue their nuclear weapons programme and have transferred all their nuclear materials elsewhere.

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For example, Kazakhstan, along with the Ukraine, which have repatriated that their nuclear weapons to Russia.

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And there's a further Kaspi of what is being called a nuclear breakout capability, which for these countries,

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which might be able to produce one or more weapons quickly and with little warning.

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And on the whole, people have not want to talk about this in the hopes that the problem will go away.

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But one that is currently alive is Japan, because the has a large stockpile of separating plutonium created by its civil nuclear programme.

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And of all of those, I invite you to consult Wikipedia if you want to see that the status of those various assertions.

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Now, what are the antiproliferation measures? And, of course, the most obvious one and the most dramatic one is the NPT itself,

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which the 191 signatures and only Israel in the idea, Israel, North Korea,

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Pakistan and South Sudan have, for one reason or another, chose not to sign it,

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that it's always been aware, but by signatories, the it has its weaknesses.

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And so so the NPT or community were very grateful when the International Atomic Energy

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Association of Working with the NPT signatories publication of the Additional Protocol,

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which is a model document which was before the IAEA were inviting nations to to sign alongside the NPT itself,

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that because it greatly increased the the the NPT requirements for information and access,

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primarily by the IAEA inspectorate, that to establish the states for using nuclear materials solely for peaceful purposes.

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And this was just some of the additional protocol.

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But this nevertheless, hundred and fifty of them then not all have ratified that.

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And and even that similar signatory state has value.

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For example, Iran signed but has not yet ratified its AP, but did choose to implement it from 2003 to 2006.

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And that's an indication of the willingness of the non signatories to to be inspected in a much more powerful and.

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It's about it, and it's only recently that the NPT has been under severe threat and has been primarily because of the non-nuclear weapon,

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the signatories who've been expressing their disillusionment with the failure of the nuclear reactor,

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the states to make progress in implementing their commitment under Article six of the NPT to,

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quote, pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures towards their settlement.

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And that is that almost everybody would agree a very legitimate charge.

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And it progressively led to some countries and some a lot of individuals seeking an alternative or

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complementary approach to the NPT in the form of the UN Treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons,

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the PNW.

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And that is actually entered into force because under its article 15 actually required 40 members to to have to approve it before it went into force.

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And the weakness of the TPN W is that it has been neutered speakers has not been signed by any of the the NPT specified that

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nuclear states or by a number of other that de facto nuclear states and therefore possessed of the countries that matter,

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have not agreed to move rapidly towards the objective of PNW, which is moving towards the ultimate goal of the total elimination of nuclear weapons.

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One other thing which I mentioned with my nuclear industry hat on is that there's one other community which works on the control of nuclear weapons,

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which are those which were set up to control the flow of export to sensitive nuclear materials and

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equipment between the states and particularly between nuclear weapons states and nuclear weapons states.

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And this is the zanger committee of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. And both of those are quite large international bodies with 30 or 40 members.

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And they set the rules about in great detail about what materials and and systems

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may be exported from nuclear weapon countries to non-nuclear different countries.

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And and this this would be greatly supported by further activities along the

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same line with the endorsement of a succession of US presidents of the US.

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And this further further endorsements have achieved strong national government support worldwide.

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So there's some good news about that. That's on the non-proliferation front then nuclear activities in space.

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And that's very well covered already in the past is to say more about that.

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The whole business of weapons, heavy international legislation against the weaponization of space is still today,

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early stage, principally because it raised such issues of ethical and technological nature, which are yet unsolved.

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And I cite the Google Earth, international law, nuclear weapons and space.

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And lastly, that this has been mentioned in several previous presentations is nuclear terrorism and.

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I don't want to go into the details of this fight, but to say that it happened is that until fairly recently,

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the nuclear community regarded that as the subject,

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that they did not wish to publish anything or and certainly admit to it very carefully before publication.

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So I take some liberty, pride in the fact that I believe that I was the first to publish a serious scholarly article on nuclear terrorism,

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which I published in 2005, that I took in, that I got the permission of my employer, the Atomic Energy Authority, not to publish.

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And they knew that I had taken great care not to sack Indian nuclear information, which was not already in the public domain.

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And since then, the technology procedures to detect preparations for nuclear terrorism have greatly improved.

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And I expressed the final hope that any potential terrorist related would would design to find better uses for his or her time.

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So that's all I want to say. And set to wind up this session because when.