Well, thank you very much indeed. Hamdani and Karen, for these very generous introductions.
The Eric Clapton story is quite true, and I could remember the territorial conversation that that gave rise to it.
But since then, I have heard of Eric Clapton. Nicholas Close kind invitation to give this lecture affords me the opportunity to share with
an audience the excitement and difficulties of writing a large book on the Enlightenment.
Let me explain how it came to take on this task. It was not.
It was not my idea. Originally, my inaugural lecture in 2011 concerned conspiracy theories in the Enlightenment.
Some focussing on Freemasons. Some Jesuits. A shortened version was published in The Times.
It brought the responses from both Freemasons and Jesuits. The librarian of the London Museum of Freemasonry invited me to join the list
and then master of Campion Hall generously invited me and my wife to dinner.
I also received a letter, and I do mean a letter written down on paper from the director of Penguin Books,
inviting me to write a book on the Enlightenment for a general audience.
I realised at once both that this was an assignment at the very limit of my powers and also something which I intensely wanted to do.
We met and found we could do business together.
I composed a synopsis summarising the Enlightenment and 10 chapters which met with the approval of Penguin's board of directors.
I also consulted some colleagues in Oxford, had written books for Penguin, amongst them McCullough and Ferran Dipolar, who is now in Princeton.
And they gave me some good advice. One particularly wise counsel was to employ an agent to negotiate with Penguin on my behalf.
After that, nothing was left to do but to write the book.
So I sat down and began to read the wealth of nations.
I didn't, of course, will see then nobody did that the events of recent months and days would add a sharper edge to thinking about the Enlightenment.
That's something I'll come back to at the end of this talk.
In writing in general, survey of the Enlightenment, well, it has, of course, a number of models, some more attainable than others.
The encyclopaedic study by Jonathan Israel in three massive volumes four,
if you include his subsequent intellectual history of the French Revolution, was far beyond my reach.
And in the case, I'm not sympathetic to his emphasis on Spinoza and his description of all virtue to the radical wing of the Enlightenment,
which is supposed to have originated from Spinoza. I haven't made much use of the more accessible surveys.
But Peter Norman Hampson and Anthony Percodan. But I wanted to write my own book.
But to do that, I had to find answers to number of questions, which we summed up as when, where, what and finally why.
The answers may not be intellectually unimpeachable, but they are working answers, which I need in order to write the book at all.
First, when was the Enlightenment? Some people are very sure that they knew Margaret, Jacob says flatly.
Flatly, the European Enlightenment began in 16 89.
This reminds me of how I learnt at school that the Renaissance began in 14:53.
For my own purposes, I place the Enlightenment in the period between 60 and 80 in 1790.
But of course, it spills over at either end. I can't ignore its antecedents in Erasmus and in the Republic of Letters,
which created the infrastructure of communication, which the Enlightenment was a huge correspondence.
Networks relied. At the other end, I want to give due credit to the radical group of English and listeners,
which included William Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, other son in law Shelly.
It may seem surprising to think of Shirley as a radical, enlightened her.
Wasn't he romantic, but is less surprising if you read his wildly anti-Christian preface to Queen Mab when he wrote
Health and eventually the Christian religion will all be known from footnotes to Paradise Lost.
If the Enlightenment temporal boundaries are fluid, its spatial boundaries even more so.
Robert Darnton wrote in 1997 that the Enlightenment was, I quote, a movement, a cause,
a campaign to change minds and reform institutions which could be located in time and pinned down in space.
Paris in the early 18th century. End quote. Listen, this is the famous one entitled George Washington's False Teeth.
He qualifies this by interesting many other centres of the Enlightenment, from Edinburgh to Philadelphia.
But it leaves it unclear how they were related to The Fountainhead in Paris,
where a small group of militant philosophers were working, as he puts it, to persuade propagandise and change the world.
Now, of course, I can see down to the point. It's all too easy to talk too loosely of the Enlightenment, regardless into itself.
Everything, everything that happened in the 18th century,
as this is to sharpen one's focus nevertheless will have to respect as well as admire the enormous reach
of Jonathan Israel's the opera extending from Peru at one extreme to Greece and Russia at the other.
In my old case, I've gone for geographical breadth. At the risk of diffuse this, my intention has been to give roughly equal attention to France,
Germany and the British Isles, particularly the northern portion.
The publisher told me that I should write the book in such a way,
the readers without knew that I was a professor of German and obtrusive and manage that,
but it would be in no doubt that I was got them to give attention to Germany.
In any case, to redress the balance and to continue the work of my predecessor in the chair,
Jim Reed, with his pathbreaking book Light in Germany, seen through unknown enlightenment.
If the German Enlightenment is little known, that's the fault of the Germans.
A dominant tradition in German historiography described by Jew Willy and his best friend lecturer two years ago downplayed the
Enlightenment as a shallow and short lived import from France and rescued good and Schiller from the shameful imputation of
enlightenment by assigning the earlier works to a student drunk and later works to revive our classicism as Oberlin and start
to see compounded the mischief by assigning the great cosmopolitan thinker herder to his so-called counter enlightenment.
The misunderstandings produced the English speaking world by Berlin's eccentric view of the Enlightenment,
something which lolls broccoli and I tried to rectify at a conference held in this very room on as Oberlin and the Enlightenment,
the proceedings of which I believe have just been published.
Other centres of the Enlightenment will receive attention with more than a little help from my friends,
the Netherlands does have problems with the centre of the international book trade.
Especially the turn of the 17, the 18th centuries when it provides a refuge for many,
Hugo's fleeing from persecution in France is the other Pierre Bill, one of the heroes of my book.
It is his journal Nouvelle de la Republique de Letra, and compiled his endlessly fascinating dictionary philosophic.
And by the way, although Bill lived for about 20 years in the United provinces, he never learnt much.
He lived in the kind of French speaking bubble.
I've been fortunate enough through the launch of a book published in Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment to get to know Pascal is true.
It is the leading authority on the Greek Enlightenment, who, amongst other things, has given me a policy of an important anti-clerical work.
But the radical Christodoulou of is on theocracy, which is available only in Greek.
I find myself also paying increasing attention to the Enlightenment in Scandinavian countries and areas,
which Jonathan Israel has recently been writing.
Finally, to illustrate the spread of enlightenment as recently sent a photograph of a chart showing the road to happiness and perfection,
it a kind of 12-Step programme from the Museum of the University of Tartu in Estonia.
It was compiled originally in German by George Friedrich Peru, and it is of more media then called Mempool God and Wittenberg is.
Issue three became the first rector of a newly founded, Re founded University of Dapat.
As was then known. He was active in Leitner, who campaigned for scientific advances and academic freedom and urged abolition of serfdom.
So the Enlightenment travelled to Estonia, but was also present in England.
The question isn't entirely straightforward and isn't entirely frivolous. On the one hand, England was widely seen as the heartland of enlightenment.
It was the home of bacon lock and above all, Newton Voltaire presented England as the Land of Enlightenment.
It is text version variously entitled Literary Philosophic and Letters concerning the English Nation.
Which includes enthusiastic exposition of Newtonian physics and astronomy.
Letter of 1735 Voltaire speaks of England, the land, the philosophers.
And then in the sector to do it at all, he writes, that is chiefly in philosophy.
The English have been the masters of other nations.
In 1780, Yaakov Sievers, one of the chief advisers to Catherine the Great Ruth of England, was that country produced without contradiction.
The most enlightened in Europe at present, and 10 years later, the Russian traveller comes in route from London.
I quote Andrew Kahn's translation I'm engaged in philosophising sorry, such as the action of English climate.
Here is the birthplace of Newton Lock and Hobbs. John Kukoc and the late Roy Porter have made great claim for English enlightenment based,
especially on this supposedly broad minded outlook that was gaining ascendancy in the Church of England.
Although the hand, frankly, eventually and following him,
John Robertson have argued against the idea of an English enlightenment on the grounds that
was the England New Party philosophy consciously advancing the cause of enlightenment.
If you want to see her perpetually England was enlightened compared to the continent, we can look at the figure of William Winston Winston,
who in 17 02 succeeded Newton as leukaemia and professor at Cambridge, might seem impeccably enlightened.
He was a brilliant mathematician who did important work in astronomy, particularly in calculating the orbits of comets.
And help to find the method of determining determining longitude.
He was also a biblical scholar who published demonstrations that all prophecies in the Bible,
even those in the apocryphal, apocryphal writings had been fulfilled.
And the Earth really had been covered in darkness at the time of Christ crucifixion,
although it was given later remarked no interest story and had noticed this event at the time.
Like Newton, Wisdom just disbelieved in the Trinity. But unlike Newton, he made his views public and was dismissed from his chair.
In his book Astronomical Principles of Religion, Natural revealed 1714 Amid serious studies of Comets,
he also thought he'd found the answer to the difficult question where Hill was located.
He maintained that the new testable description of [INAUDIBLE],
I quote does in every circumstance so exactly agree with the nature of a comet ascending
to the hot regions near the sun and going into the cold regions beyond Saturn,
with its low looking tail rising up from it through several ages or periods of revolving.
This in the sight of all that happened of our ear and the rest of the system and
quote the sinuous must be condemned to travel perpetually on the surface of a comet,
thereby quote a 40th terrible but most useful spectacle to the rest of God's rational creatures.
And we still don't forget with writing over 30 years after Bill in his positive,
Ursula commit and argued powerfully against all attempts to interpret comets as signs of punishment from God.
By comparison with must be, Crystal must be considered only a very partial representative of the Enlightenment.
What you have to do then to count as enlightened. That's a question I intend to evade.
I shall offer a set of boxes to be ticked, but anyone wanting to qualify as a.
Let's not try to reduce the Enlightenment to a formula, although I can do so entirely.
I shall try as far as possible to avoid generalisations. Beginning the Enlightenment did this or that.
I would rather explore a number of themes of twelve thou single out three.
And each of these themes is this way ambivalent. First, happiness, my book of the provisional subtitle, The Quest for Happiness,
we find repeatedly amongst Enlightenment thinkers the idea that happiness on this Earth is possible,
whether as fulfilment of God's intention or of humanity's history.
Adam Smith writes in the theory of Moral Sentiments, The happiness of mankind,
as well as of all other rational creatures, seems to be in the original purpose intended by the author of Nature.
When he brought them into existence.
Labelmates wrote Round 16, 71 that caught the soul and philosophising was for use in life and to increase the power and happiness of mankind.
And he also wrote, Wisdom is the science of happiness.
But I think with lately, it's sort of the team of have this was laid down in the Constitution of the Universe.
But the the sunny optimism of is the odyssey.
The work of a philosophical Mr. Pickwick provoked considerable scepticism.
Voltaire questioned it sharply, and the article vindicated a philosophy entitled To take what this chefs to the pope and Pope's philosophical mentor,
Bolingbroke are all put on the spot. Yes, Voltaire says universe is a spectacle of order, but orders nothing to do with happiness.
The soldiers manifest the system whereby all species live by killing one another.
Flies are killed by spiders, spiders by small birds, small birds, the eagles, eagle eagles by human beings,
humans for each other and perhaps ultimately by devils is equally manifest and process by which a stone develops in the bladder,
causing unspeakable agony to the person concerned. We remember how encoded the life Nuzzi.
Dr. Pangalos retains his optimism not only during the Lisbon earthquake, but even after he's been hanged,
cut down partially dissected, showed up again and condemned to be a galley slave.
But, you know, the happiness were not insured by God.
Perhaps one could ignore God and try through human effort to make the world a happier place when life moves toward happiness.
They often mean not individual happiness, which of Hume says drastic aside, is not to be thought of.
But the several preconditions for happiness or for the body are public or felicity public,
thus also showing the Shasta books the three ties to the Felicity public.
1770 says individual happiness can be measured, but public happiness can happen is what remains of a.
They have to listen closely here. Happiness is what remains of air.
After subtracting B and C, what is the amount of work a man can do without becoming miserable?
B If the amount of work he must do to secure basic necessities and see if the amount of work demanded of him by his rulers.
Happiness is secured by the relation amongst these three elements.
It depends on how much you work is what you want to do as opposed to what you need to do or are made to do.
In order to increase 350 public like must put enormous energy into practical improvements.
And this practical enlightenment will see your chapter in my book.
There are many practical things to be done, such as improving roads, drilling marshes, reforming agriculture, educating children, caring for the sick.
Sometimes these methods, these measures were undertaken by inviting despots such as Peter and Catherine in Russia.
Frederick the Great in Prussia, Georgia, the second in Austria.
Sometimes the initiative came from individual landowners or patriotic societies.
Societies for practical improvement sprang up everywhere.
But the 17 forties, most of the larger towns in Britain and many smaller ones had a number of societies concerned with improvement in some form,
the Lunar Society of Birmingham is a famous example. In this practical sense, we can certainly talk about the spread of enlightenment in England.
Similar societies come into being throughout Europe and beyond.
For example, the Spanish and later companies founded the Royal Society of the Friends of the Country in 1764 and buy it in Level 12 most societies.
Have you found it in the Spanish voice royalties in America? So perhaps more enlightenment spread to Latin America?
Agriculture attracted particular attention after Young, who surveyed the lamentable state of agriculture in France shortly before the revolution,
wrote Agriculture is beyond all doubt the foundation of every other art, business or profession.
Gupta introduces into his novel Liliana A, who caught in the period of 20 years,
who quietly done much to develop many branches of agriculture and encouraged everything,
was beneficial for the fields, animals and people and thus promoted the truest enlightenment.
And could this, of course, is a polemical stroke against the philosophical enlightenment was good a thought had issued in the French Revolution.
England was again the peacemaker in agricultural enlightenment.
The innovation with people whom I first encountered in all over history, such as Jethro Tull,
who invented the seed drill and turned up 2000, qualify them as important builders of the Enlightenment.
Of the Great Imported, an English farmer named Christopher Brown to demonstrate new methods.
Unfortunately, Brown didn't like taking orders from Prussian officials, was charged with insubordination and ended up in a Berlin prison.
New implement such the iron flow you systems of crop rotation and new crops such as potato
spread across Europe despite frequent resistance from farmers to grow as intended,
re-emerge in the 1760s, introduce the potato.
But the peasants regarded it as unfit for human consumption of the animals until the sweet potatoes.
But the famine of 1770. The search for happiness then turns out to be very down to earth subjects.
I want to give some credit to to the many rural clergymen who spend practical enlightenment and little pen portraits of
some of Oovernor in Alsace who gave his name to Oberlin College in Ohio and the great Phoenician light show genius.
I know who the present day Finns are familiar with his name, who would not only introduce many practical measures for the rich folks to human rights.
But not by second theme, which I will leave empiricism, excuse me.
The last one began with a 180 degree turn in the conception of knowledge.
The rationalistic heart looked at his own mind for absolutely fundamental truths and felt his own existence and existence of God,
the latter being something which not many people nowadays would consider beyond all doubt.
Look, on the other hand, assumed the mind was a blank slate which required all this knowledge of compensation and reflection.
You started from empirical data,
such as the fact that some objects influence one another distance and the set of emerging streams of invisible invisible particles
to transmit the motion at previous enquiries have done use mathematics to work out the theory of gravitation instead of deduction.
The alignment favoured induction. Looking out of the world have consequences in many fields.
One was the understanding of the Bible since the Reformation had been known at least two scholars,
though some essential Christian doctrines, had no support from the Bible.
It was found that the only verse which might be thought to apply the doctrine of the Trinity.
One John five seven had quite different wording in all the manuscripts available to him, muses himself.
Engaged in textual criticism.
There was also enough, except enough of the Bible to think the account of creation in Genesis was compatible with modern science.
He pointed out the supposed testament to the incarnation in one Timothy 3:16, which runs.
And in the authorised version, great is a mystery of Godzilla's God was manifest in the flesh with a fourth reading.
Unknown before the sixth century, other texts have not God, but which Texas scholars don't tend to undermine the Bible.
When John M. Principles was Edmund Hall,
Oxford produced just before his death in 1787 and addition of the Greek New Testament with 30000 variant readings.
His aim was to stabilise the text by eliminating errors,
but the eye catching figure of 30000 suggested rather, the text of the Bible could not be finally determined.
Eventually,
the Bible became a book and the other book composed at various times by various authors and containing many of the errors which are inevitable.
What it takes is repeatedly copied, not to mention the fields of such as Voltaire, a grateful father for the absurdities they found in the Bible.
Voltaire, for example, laughs. The strange prohibitions in the law You mustn't eat eels because they have no scales.
You mustn't eat the here because it chews the cud and lacks a cleft food, whereas in fact, it doesn't chew the cud and thus of a class food.
And he wasn't he birds that walk on all fours and easily prohibition to obey.
But empiricism isn't a straightforward matter.
After all, if you realise the evidence of unneeded senses, you go on thinking the sun goes round the Earth.
Reasoned reflection requires a teach one better. Many people on the evidence of their senses attest highly improbable things such as miracles.
There was one enlightened Pope Benedict, the 14th, who reigned from 1740 to 1758, who accepted the findings of modern science,
explains many supposed supernatural phenomena from natural causes campaigned against superstition
and a two gifted female scientists appointed to university cheers as archbishop of Bologna.
He destroyed the file of the Virgin of Milk and the piece of Moses Rod was on display there.
And yet, despite his doubts, Benedict was obliged to accept the miracles performed by the flying Saint
Giuseppe Copper Tino because his feats were tested by many reputable witnesses.
Giuseppe had been banned for church services for some 35 years, but was used to distract the congregation by flying up and down the nave,
and he's also been seen flying around church spires and this, according to many trustworthy witnesses.
Still, Giuseppe had lived in the 17th century the new living witnesses to his feats of levitation.
Yet of whom Portugal eschewed miracles. There were many living witnesses to the miraculous cures believed to have taken place in the cemetery.
For me, to the tune of saintly gentlest falsehood, the police who died in 1728.
Many witnesses of unimpeachable integrity confirm those miracles.
Yet who says they are not widely accepted?
Quote What are we to oppose to such a cloud of witnesses, but the absolute impossibility or miraculous nature of the events which they relate?
And this surely in the eyes of all reasonable people, will alone be regarded as a sufficient refutation.
We probably all agree, but this isn't quite an empirical argument. Recent prior conviction was a miracle.
A violation of the order of nature is impossible, and therefore the New Testament can be strong enough to provide evidence for it.
And it also rests on the conviction that you knew for the order of nature is.
Hume doesn't consider the possibility,
the possibility that a supposedly miraculous event might be the real result of natural causes, which are not yet understood.
His argument takes us to the limit of empirical evidence. Nevertheless, in general,
the empirical scrutiny of evidence is an enormously powerful instrument to get to the truth and to repel claims that are based merely on authority.
And they will see that my favourite enlightenment text includes some the code to the claims of authority.
But the simple application of courageous good sounds, good sense and attention to the fact to sample most of Hume's essays Spinoza of
Bible Criticism Bakery on crimes and punishment and count on perpetual peace.
Now, my third theme is empathy. One of the philosophers who did most to shape the Enlightenment was Anthony Ashley-Cooper,
3rd Earl of Shastri, who died in 1713 53 human beings with both social and sociable quote.
Eating and drinking with natural herding is so too, if any appetite or sense be natural.
The sense of fellowship is the same end quote. Natural affection draws a couple together and tells them to look after the helpless infant.
The family need food and the dwelling place. Which would bring into contact with other people.
The household grows into a tribe and the tribe into a nation.
Well, it's natural for men is what preserves the species Shastri, as opposed to the French moralists.
And if theorists such as the Russian hukou who've ascribed most to all of human behaviour to self love.
Human sociability is linked to chess records, the moral sense when we reflect or conduct, we know will have acted well or badly.
We do not need God's commandments to tell us what is right, and we do not need the fear of God to make us do it.
A moral sense cooperates, though, natural infections to guide us and pleasurable coexistence with our fellow humans.
These ideas and the easily relaxed, albeit long winded style it would sharply express them, had a robust vogue throughout Europe motor skill class,
chiefly amongst the four greatest poets,
the others being Peter Mountain and Brush did through two Swedish factories and virtually made it into French with his own commentary.
And it is article Genie in the article. He called Shastri a genius of the First Order, the Great German Enlightenment in New Zealand in 1758.
Cole Shastri, the wittiest and subtlest of all modern writers.
In particular, Shakespeare's ideas were developed by the Scottish School of Moral Philosophers, including Francis Hutchinson,
who was actually an Irishman, and Adam Smith, whose view of sympathy, which meant something different by it.
Hutchinson. Hutchinson interpreted to mean benevolent adversaries, dissented from his teachers approval system and in the theory of moral sentiments,
substituting the term sympathy,
Smith's understanding of human nature wasn't part based live reading of novels while in Oxford and seven in the seventeen forties.
He's a scholarship burial. Found his lecturers were still teaching and outdated as materialism for which he could derive no benefit.
And so he avoided lectures and spent much of his time reading French English novels by Beliveau Richardson and others.
Sympathy is not only a key term in the theory of moral sentiments. But it also underlies the wealth of nations.
That is not as most people think you haven't read it. A defence of selfishness and unrestrained capitalism.
It argues an economic life depends on the basic human instinct for exchange with others.
Well, Smith calls a propensity to truck barter and exchange one thing for another, which is distinctively human.
That to be human is to be social. On this basis, of course, people pursue their own interests.
Smith writes contract contrary to Hutchison, it is not from the benevolence or the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect for a dinner from.
They regard their own interest.
But the invisible hand ensures the society forms an equilibrium in which the good of the individual that a society can be reconciled.
Sympathy also reshapes this literature. Lessing, who was named one of Hutchison's works into German.
Developed a theory of tragedy, which turns on sympathy, compassion and pity.
He writes, The most compassionate person is the best person, the most capable of all the social virtues of every kind of bad liberty.
So whoever makes us more compassionate makes us better and more virtuous, unquote.
The great novels of mid to late 18th century Lucius and Clarissa Rousseau La Nouvelle Elusive Good Virtue evoked immensely emotional reactions.
The people were drawn in too intense sympathy with the feet of the protagonists.
A reader of Clarissa Busy Bradshaw wrote to Richardson in 1749.
I very believe I really believe I shed a pint of tears with a little agony is what I lay down.
The book takes up again. Walk about the room that fall a flood of tears.
Wipe my eyes read again. Perhaps not three lines through the book Crying out.
Excuse me, good, Mr Richardson. I can't go on. And this wasn't just emotional self-indulgence.
Lynn Hunt, in her book Inventing Human Rights,
has argued the sympathy for others developed by novel reading led to an empathetic understanding of other people.
And concern for their well-being. The language of sentiment was applied to plead for the humane treatment of children, criminals and animals.
In Austria, judicial torture was abolished by decree of 1776 after a campaign by the
enlightened Legislature using the firm's own filth and the coddling tradition.
His impassioned plea delivered kneeling beside his seat.
Ruth Maria Teresa with tears and persuaded her to abolish torture.
Sentimental fiction supported the already widespread condemnation of colonialism,
especially British rule in India, which which the enlightens condemn pretty well with a single voice.
It urged consideration of all fellow humans, irrespective of class and race.
It also comes to animals. This was a time when cruel sports was still very common,
such as brutal beating cockfighting and cock throwing in which a cop was tied to a post as a stick through that until it died.
The English were notorious for the cruelty to animals. Russo comments on this.
But on the commission to wantonly cruel and abuse was a much enjoyed such as Fox tossing it,
which Fox would throw as high as possible in a blanket until it died.
The priest, Joe Joe Millionaire, who on his death left a testament denouncing Christianity as absurd reports with horror,
how peasants in his parish attach life cuts to the top of an upright pool and light a fire at his base quote
to have the pleasure of seeing the violent movements and hearing the frightful cries that these poor,
unfortunate beasts are forced to make because savagery of the tortures so senseless.
Robert, doubtless Great Cafe Massacre was not such an unusual event.
I do want to quote own drawing to a close. A little known witness to the power of sympathy and also spokesman for communication between cultures.
John Oswald, the son of the Edinburgh journalist, was also the poet, journalist, soldier and revolutionary atheist and vegetarian.
He moved to Paris in 1790, edited the monthly journal, spoke in the Jacobean club,
as well as an honorary French citizen and the commander in the Revolutionary Army.
He was killed in the battle of 11d in September 1793. Before that, he spent two years as an officer in India.
They're probably unlike most British soldiers.
He talked with Hindus and acquired great respect for the religion, especially for humanity and fellow feeling towards animals.
It is the cry of nature or an appeal to mercy and to justice on behalf of the persecuted animals.
1791 also says he practises a system of life that is more the result of settlement than a reason.
The one practised by the Hindus who believe in reincarnation and animated by natural feelings protects animals within Europe.
Quote our colours in sensibility foreign to the native texture of the heart.
This exercise for oppression over inferior but fellow creatures.
Besides sentiment, he says the reasons are things humanity was intended to be vegetarian hunting meat, we will salvage the diet with beaches,
unhealthy quote animal food overpowers the faculty's, the stomach clogs the functions of the soul and renders the animal material growth end quote.
But also main argument for vegetarianism comes the language of sentiment of the heart.
The language developed over the previous century. Now, my first question is why?
Why, right? Well, the Enlightenment at all at the present time.
I sympathise very much with the message of the recent book by Anthony Peden entitled The Enlightenment and Why it still matters.
But I need to express some doubts. I was appealing to the Enlightenment as it were wholesale, as an antidote for our present discontents.
The Enlightenment is not a homogeneous movement, but a complex set of arguments and debates,
difficult to get into focus and impossible to treat as a package.
If you talk about enlightenment values, we have to be selective. For example, we probably would find an Enlightenment much support for feminism,
the voice of women for Mary and Judith Drake at the beginning of the century.
To Mary Wollstonecraft, Priscilla Wakefield,
and Allow learnt to gush as his end till be drowned by unsympathetic misery like those that did rule Rousseau, especially Rousseau and Adam Smith.
Amongst the Enlightenment values I prefer were those I've talked about practical improvement, impetus and sympathy.
We'll certainly have to add human rights as another very necessary for the present is cosmopolitanism.
Enlighten felt themselves linked to kindred spirits, other countries, including the Chinese, who often imagined as already enlightened.
Life frozen 60 97. I'm indifferent to that, which constitutes a German or a Frenchman, but I will only the good of all mankind.
Do you do rule to human 1768? I said to myself that I am like you, a citizen of the great city of the world.
It's recently been said that a citizen of the world is a citizen of nowhere, but in violent comic novel history of the abda rights.
The citizens of Abdala, those ancient Greek city famous for being inhabited by stupid people like Gotham of England,
the citizens of Abdellah denounced the philosopher Democritus as a cosmopolitan cosmopolitan.
But the narrator calls about Velt Berger, a world citizen who still considered also with his native land.
This seems to me an important, valuable perspective at a time when over two decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall,
new walls are growing up in Europe and much greater walls are promised elsewhere.
The key message of the Enlightenment, however, is a familiar one which can be too often repeated have the courage to use your own mind.
Separate Audi dare to do is the watchword of enlightenment.
Count wasn't alone in using this quotation from Horace Frank of Intuitive's
found many earlier uses and the same years can't see what is Enlightenment.
7:54 is used as the motto of a journal, but the Swedish Enlightenment, Thomas told it, invites us not to try to import enlightenment into the present,
but to use our critical reason to see how enlightenment values can be adapted to the needs of the present.
The Enlightenment was not become yet another authority.
For that reason, finally, and this is final, it's often sort of look at the problems with advisement wrestled with but couldn't resolve.
One is the problem of the virtuous republic. Montesquieu tells us the principle of a republic is virtue.
The few republics left to the 18th century didn't always live up to the standard,
with the possible exception of Geneva, ideal republics had existed in the ancient world, but they were small.
The problem was how to preserve a sense of civic virtue and a large, modern commercial society, whether it was nominally a republic or a monarchy.
The article on republics, but also to be written by the industrious Chevalier The Joker, who,
by the way, some 17000 articles has this to say, and I think it has more than one present application.
It is in the nature of a republic that can have only a small territory, otherwise it can scarcely survive in a large republic.
There are large fortunes and consequently this moderation in people's minds.
There are properties too great replace the hands of a citizen. Interests become individualised and then first feels that he can be happy.
Great, glorious without his country, and soon that he can only be great upon the ruins of his country.
Thank you very much.